POPULATION

Definition of terms

Population

● Refers to people living in an area.

Population growth

● This refers to increase of population due to both natural increase (birth rate - death
rate) and net migration ( number of immigrants – number of emigrants).

Natural Increase/ natural population growth

● it is the positive difference between number of births and deaths (when births are
more than deaths).
● it is calculated as BR – DR

Negative Population Growth/Natural decrease

● is when DR is higher than BR

Replacement Level

● this is when there are sufficient children born to balance the no. of people who die.

Population explosion- this is a rapid increase in population which takes place inside a short
period of time. It is usually as a result of marked decrease in death rate, but sometimes
amplified by a concurrent increase in birth rate.

Population growth trends

Graphs illustrating various population growth trends

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 gentle/slight/gradual increase steep/rapid/sharp increase

gentle/slight/gradual decrease steep/rapid/sharp decrease

fluctuating constant

World population growth rates

Between 1000 and 1700 population growth was very slow and the population remained
below 1 billion. Birth rate was high but death rate was also high. The high birth rate was due
to :

● lack of contraceptives or family planning methods.

● Children were needed to work in the fields.

● Low socio-economic status of women, they were not educated, could not take up
any form of employment and had no say in fertility issues.
● It was prestigious to have a large family

The high death rate caused by:

● Prevalence of diseases which killed people eg black death influenza

● Poor supply of preventive and curative medical drugs

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 ● Food shortages/ famines

● Poor personal hygiene and lack of sanitation leading to outbreak of diseases

● Wars

Between 1700 and 1939 there was rapid population growth which led to a population
explosion Birth rate remained high but death rate suddenly decreased. The sudden decrease
in death rate was due to:

● The agricultural revolution which improved food supply due to mechanisation,

irrigation and use of fertilisers.
● The industrial revolution created many jobs for people and people earned incomes
that improved their standards of living.
● Improved water supply and sanitation reducing outbreak of water borne diseases.

● Improved supply of medicines that cured many diseases

From 1940 onwards population growth slowed down in MEDCs but remained high in LEDCs.
Population growth was slow in MEDCs due to a significant reduction in birth rate caused by:

● Emancipation of women, they spent more in education thereby delaying marriages,

they took up jobs and were forced to limit child bearing, they had a say in fertility
issues.
● Family planning programmes were put in place and contraceptives were readily
available.
● There was preference for materialistic life styles and this meant reducing family size.

● Children were now viewed as economic liabilities and were very expensive to raise.

Population growth remained high in LEDCs because birth rates remained high but death
rates fell sharply. Death rates fell sharply due to:

● Improvements in medical facilities

● Improvement in water supply and sanitation which reduced water borne diseases.

● Improved working conditions such as shorter working hours and provision of safety
clothing.

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 ● Improvements in diet in terms of quantity and quality which reduced malnutrition
diseases such as kwashiorkor.

Components of population change

Population change in a country is affected by:

1. The difference between births/fertility and mortality/deaths. Population increases if

births are more than deaths but decreases if deaths are more than births.
2. The difference between immigration and emigration (net migration). Population in a
country increases if there are more immigrants than emigrants (positive net
migration) but decreases if there are more emigrants than immigrants (negative net
migration).

Fertility

● it is a broad term that includes the reproductive performance of a woman in the

child bearing age group (15-49yrs) without fertility control or regulation
● fertility is measured by fertility ratio and birth rate

Fertility ratio

● refers to the number of young children in the population related to the number of
women in child bearing age.
● Fertility ratio = no. of chn under 5 yrs x 1000
no. of women aged 15 -49

Crude Birth Rate

● is the number of live births in a year per thousand people

● it is crude because it includes people who do not bear children e.g. men, children,
the elderly ,it is calculated using the formula :

:no of live births in a yr X 1000

total population 1

150 000 x 1000

5 000 000 1
= 30/1000

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 ● it may be expressed as a % : e.g. 30 per 1000 = 30 X 100 = 3%

1000 1

● crude birth rate is high in most LEDCs and lower in MEDCs.

Causes of high BR in LEDCs

● some religious sects like the Apostolic Churches and Catholics shun the use of birth
control measures e.g. contraceptives, leading to high birth rates
● Apostolic Churches and some cultures allow polygamy where women compete in
child bearing thereby raising the birth rate
● They also allow marriage at early ages (12 – 15 yrs) again leading to high birth rate

● The search for the male heir to sustain the family name raises the birth rate

● Large families are prestigious in traditional societies and this raises the BR

● low levels of education lead to high CBR by causing early marriages and disturbing
proper use of contraceptives
● Children are economic assets in agrarian societies as they are sources of agricultural
labour
● high infant mortality rate and child mortality has led to high CBR in LEDCs so people
opt to have many children to ensure survival of others.
● Lack of Social Security at old age eg lack of pensions , old people’s homes and funds
to help the elderly has led to high BR in LEDCs so people tend to bear many children
to ensure social security at old age
● contraceptives may not be available and or accessible to traditional , remote rural
societies leading to high CBR.
● lack of women emancipation or low economic status of women in LEDCs e.g. being
unemployed and being regarded only as child bearers means that they cannot
decide on the number of children that they want to have.

Attempts to reduce BR in LEDCs

● providing contraceptives free of charge so that even the poor can access them

● increasing distribution points for contraceptives so that they are readily available

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 ● conducting educational campaigns to raise awareness on birth control measures

● mechanising agriculture to reduce the need for child labour on the fields

● emancipation of women – this empowers them to have a say on fertility issues

● govt policy :crafting anti-natalist policies ( e.g. China’s One Child Policy )as most
LEDCs have pro-natalist policies

Causes of low birth rate in MEDCs

● more time is spent in school thereby delaying the age of marriage

● education raised the literacy levels which enabled the proper use of birth control
measures and loosened resistance to new ideas on birth control
● both males and females got formal employment hence rationalising between child
bearing and going for work
● Socio-economic status for women was raised and they could decide on fertility issues
(i.e. when to have children and how many) , the advent of employment meant
limited maternity leave
● Children are seen as liabilities, they are hindrances to work, studies, careers and are
also costly to raise
● various family planning methods are available and accessible so this reduces birth
rate.
● Agriculture got mechanised (tractor drawn disc ploughs, planters, cultivators , boom
sprayers , combine harvesters ...) thereby replacing children as a source of labour
● Social security at old age was put in place: pension schemes, old people ‘s funds, old
people’s homes so there is no need to have many children.
● Infant mortality rates are very low reducing the need for more children

Attempts to increase BR

● Govt policy: pro-natalist policies that are incentivised e.g. free health education for
additional children , priority accommodation , fully paid maternity leave...etc.

MORTALITY

● Refers to the occurrence of deaths in a population.

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 ● it is measured by Crude Death Rate, Infant Mortality Rate , Maternal Mortality, Life
Expectancy.

Crude Death Rate

● refers to the number of deaths in a year per thousand people

● it can further be expressed as a %

● formula : number of deaths in a yr X 1000

Total population 1

60 000 x 1000

5 000 000 1p

= 12/1000

● it is higher in LEDCs and lower in MEDCs

Infant Mortality Rate

● is the number of deaths of children under one year of age per thousand live births
per year

Maternal Mortality

● deaths amongst women whilst pregnant or during delivery due to pregnancy related
problems.

Life Expectancy

● it is the average life span of a person, the average age at which people die

● it is higher in MEDCs around 65yrs and lower in LEDCs approximately 40yrs

Causes of high death rates in LEDCs

● poor medical facilities /poor quality health care /lack of medical drugs

● lack of education - people are still indulged in traditional medical practises

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 ● lack of immunisation infants die due to the seven killer diseases(diphtheria, measles,
whooping cough, tetanus, hepatitis B, polio )
● lack of food /poor nutrition /starvation

● poor sanitation i.e. lack of clean water ,toilets

● inaccessibility of health facilities due to poor road networks and distant locations

● high doctor to patient ratio and nurse /patient ratio

● poor prediction and prevention of natural disasters e.g. floods and droughts

Causes of low death rates in MEDCs

● health education is provided among citizens and know causes and ways of
preventing diseases
● children are immunised against the killer diseases

● there is good sanitation and hygiene i.e. clean water and toilets

● adequate food supply and nutritious diets

● drugs are available in hospitals as well as related medical technology

● better living conditions

● people can afford hospital fees they go for frequent medical check ups

● the modern societies can predict and prevent natural disasters like floods and
droughts .

Causes of high infant/ child mortality rates in LEDCs

● low quality health care

● lack of immunisation leading to deaths by the six killer diseases

● poor nutrition leading to problems like kwashiorkor

● poverty at family level (lack of food on the table, warm clothing in winter)

● poor sanitation and lack clean water supply leading to outbreak of diseases

NB: Countries with high infant mortality rates also have high birth rates. This is because:

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 ● People are likely to have many children/large families/want lots of children;

● They think that many will not live long/hope some survive/to replace children who die/lots of
babies die.
● They want children to help on the land/farming.

● They want children to help in the home/look after siblings.

● They want children to fetch water/collect wood.

● They want children to go out and earn money/to work/for labour.

● They want children to look after them/take care of them in old age as there are no
pensions/state benefits for elderly.

Attempts to reduce mortality

● training medical staff and paying them good salaries for them to stay in the country

● Construct protected wells and drill boreholes to provide clean water .

● adequate supply of medicines, help can be sought from

WHO,UNICEF ,REDCROSS,USAID
● improving diets

● community health workers to provide basic health care training

Population growth problems

Problems caused by rapid population growth in LEDCs

● food shortages

● unemployment

● shortage of accommodation

● spread of diseases from overcrowding

● pressure on health and education services

● poverty and low standards of living

● rural urban migration and related problems

● high crime rates

● shortage of land for farming and settlement

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 ● deforestation leading to soil erosion

● increased pollution

Measures to Control Population Growth

● govt policy, e.g. China’s one child policy

● educational campaigns on birth control measures and advantages of small families

e.g. by ZNFPC (Zimbabwe National Family Planning Council)

Causes of declining population in MEDCs

● some MEDCs have a higher death rate than birth rate and this has led to declining
population.
● Higher death rate will be due to degenerative diseases associated with old age eg
cancer and due to diseases related to obesity eg heart diseases.
● Lower birth rates are due to :
[Link] time is spent in school thereby delaying the age of marriage
[Link] raised the literacy levels which enabled the proper use of birth control
measures and loosened resistance to new ideas on birth control
[Link] males and females got formal employment hence rationalising between child
bearing and going for work
[Link]-economic status for women was raised and they could decide on fertility
issues (i.e. when to have children and how many), the advent of employment meant
limited maternity leave
[Link] are seen as liabilities, they are hindrances to work, studies, careers and
are also costly to raise
[Link] family planning methods are available and accessible so this reduces birth
rate.

Problems caused by low population growth/ declining population in MEDCs

MEDCs have an ageing population. This means they have a large proportion of elderly
people above the age of 65. Ageing population is caused by low birth rate and high life
expectancy. It causes the following problems:

● shortage of labour force

● ghost schools (empty schools as there are no children )

● low industrial output due to shortage of workers

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 ● conflicts between locals and migrant workers

● increased government spending on old people’s homes and pensions

● modification of facilities to accommodate the elderly on wheelchairs

- high taxation to meet the needs of the elderly
● some industries producing children’s items close

● the country becomes defenceless since there are many old people

Attempts to reduce problems of population ageing in MEDCs

● crafting pro-natalist policies that are incentivised e.g. free education and health,
priority housing
● educational campaigns on the need for more children

● hiring expatriate labour

● raising taxes for couples with fewer children.

● Engagement of elderly people for part time employment eg as consultants

● Raising pensionable age to reduce the number of people getting pensions

The Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

This is a simplified explanation of how population patterns of countries change over time due to
changing BR and DR. It shows stages through which countries should pass as they move from rural,
poorly educated societies to urban, industrial and well educated ones. The model fits what
happened in Europe, The USA and Japan but poorer countries may not follow the same pattern.

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Stage 1: high stationary stage

● BR is high- about 40/1000. This is due to lack of birth control, women marry very young,
children are needed to work in the fields.
● DR is high and fluctuating around 40/1000 because of disease, famine, lack of clean water,
lack of medical care.
● Natural increase is low, population does not increase much.

● No country as a whole is in stage 1 but just a few remote tribes eg the Kayapo tribe in the
Amazon Basin.

Stage 2: early expanding stage

● BR still high(40/1000) for the same reasons as stage 1.

● DR starting to decline – until about 20/1000 because of improved medicines, cleaner water,
more and better food, improved sanitation.
● NI is high, population increases quickly.

● Countries in this stage include Afghanstan, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Bangladesh.

Stage3 : late expanding stage

● BR starting to fall – until about 20/1ooo because fewer pe0ple are farmers who need
children to work, birth control is now available, infant mortality is falling, women are staying
in education and marrying later.
● DR is still falling- to around 10/1ooo for the same reasons as stage 2.

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 ● There is still some NI but lower than it was, so overall population increase is slowing down.

● Countries in this stage include India, Brazil, Peru, Pakistan, Sri Lanka.

Stage 4: low stationary stage

● BR is low and fluctuating around 9/1000 because of birth control, people are now
having the number of children they want.
● DR remains low

● There is little or NI so population does not increase much.

● Countries in this stage include UK, USA, France.

Stage 5: natural decrease stage

● BR remains and can fall below DR.

● DR rises slightly before more of the population is elderly.

● In the absence of positive net migration populations are declining.

● Countries in this stage include Japan, Germany, Bulgaria, Ukraine

Population structure

● refers to the composition of population analysed especially in aspects of age and sex.

● When describing population structure, 3 broad bands are used:

1. the young dependent population below the age of 15.
2. The economically active population or working population aged 15-64.
3. The elderly dependents aged 65 or more.

Population pyramid/ age -sex pyramid

● This is a graph which shows the proportion of males to females in their respective
age groups.
● males on the left and females on the right- showing age/sex differentials

● 5 year age intervals are in the middle

LEDC population pyramid

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 ● the pyramid’s base shows a wide base due high birth rate

● the pyramid’s middle is tapering / narrowing because of high death rate

● the top of the pyramid is narrow due to low life expectancy.

● the pyramid is generally triangular in shape.

MEDC population pyramid

● has narrow or thin base due to low birth rate

● has a bulging middle due to low death rate

● has a wide top due to high life expectancy

● it is less triangular in shape

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The economic active group/mature group

● made up of the 15 -64 years age group

● working adults who support the youths and the aged

Dependency load

● is the number of people who cannot be gainfully employed either because they are
too young (0-14 years old) or too old (65 years and above).
● It is expressed as a ratio using a formula :
Chn(0-14) + elderly (65 and over) x 100
Those of working age (15-64)

[Link] dependents

● aged between 0 – 14

● they are not economically active

● they are dependent upon the economically active for food , shelter, education,
health etc.
● related social services have to be provided for by the state (schools , hospitals ,
entertainment )

Problems caused by a large number of young dependents

● pressure on schools

● pressure on medical facilities

● pressure on job opportunities in future

● overcrowding due to shortage of accommodation

● shortage of land for farming and settlement

● shortage of food

With reference to an example of a country you have studied, explain the causes and effects of high
young dependent population or Describe the causes and impacts of rapid population growth in a
country you have studied. [7]
Case study –Gambia
Gambia is a small country in West Africa. It is surrounded by Senegal and a short strip of Atlantic coastline

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at its western end. Gambia has a youthful population since 44% of the population is classified as young
dependents while only 2% is classified as elderly dependents.
Causes of rapid population growth in Gambia
The 2018 population in Gambia was around 2 million.
The high young dependents in the country is due its high growth rate of 3,2% per year. 95% of the
country ‘s population are Muslim and the religious leaders shun or discourage the use of
contraception. This increases the birth rate and ultimately the youthful population. Each woman has
total fertility rate of about 7 children. In Gambia children are regarded as economic asserts because they
help with crop production and looking after animals. One in every three children aged between 10
and 14 in Banjul, the capital, is working. Gambia is a poor country so there is not enough money to make
government programmes that educate and inform women about family planning meaning more children. Infant
mortality in Gambia is very high. In 2012, the infant mortality rate was 70/1000. This high infant
mortality rate has pushed the birth rate to a high level as parents are of the opinion that some of the
many children that are born will survive. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has stressed that
one of the causes of rapid population growth in Gambia is poverty.
Impacts of rapid population growth in Gambia
This high population growth has serious impacts on the environment and the people. Large numbers
of trees are chopped down every year for fuel wood and construction. As a result, desertification is
increasing at a rapid rate. Many children means families have financial problems, there is lack of money to
feed and support an ever-growing family. Malnutrition has become common, homes are extremely over-
crowded and there poor sanitation. Water pollution is a significant problem due to lack of adequate sanitation
facilities. Impure water is responsible for life-threatening diseases that contribute to high infant mortality rates.
The government has insufficient
Only about 53% of the people in rural areas have pure drinking water.
financial resources for education and health. Most schools in Banjul have a 2 shift system, with one
group attending school in the morning and another group in the afternoon. Books are in short
supply, general facilities poor and sanitation very poor.

[Link] dependents

● aged 65 and above

● they are dependents because they need social and economic support

● they are also a burden to the government since they need pensions, health care and
old people’s homes.

Problems caused by aged dependents

● shortage of labour force

● ghost schools (empty schools as there are no children )

● low industrial output due to shortage of workers

● conflicts between locals and migrant workers

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 ● increased government spending on old people’s homes and pensions

● modification of facilities to accommodate the elderly on wheelchairs

● high taxation to meet the needs of the elderly

● some industries producing children’s items close

● the country becomes defenceless since there are many old people

For a named country you have studied explain the causes and effects of ageing population in that
country. [7]
Case study –Japan
The elderly population in Japan is about 23 % of the total population.
Causes of population ageing in Japan
Population ageing in Japan is due to high life expectancy, 79 for men and 86 for women due to a
healthy diet and good quality life. Japan is one of the richest countries in the world and so its cities
such as Tokyo have good care and welfare systems. There are 210 doctors for every 100 000 people.
The birth rate in Japan has also been declining since 1975. This is partly due to rise in the average
age at which women have their first child. This rose from 25 in 1970 to 29 in 2006. Throughout this
period the number of couples getting married has fallen and the marriageable age has risen.
Impacts of population ageing in Japan
There are many problems associated with population ageing in Japan. There is a burden on the
economically active population as they are charged higher taxes to support the needs of the elderly.
There is also shortage of recruits for the armed forces and this has weakened Japan’s ability to
defend itself. The shortage of labour has caused Japan’s high tech electronics industries to stagnate.
As a result companies like Sony and Mitsubish in Tokyo had to increase salaries so as to attract
foreign workers. There is also need to put in medical care for the elderly this and this increases
pressure on medical resources. There is now need to provide large sums of money as pensions to
these people thereby increasing costs to government and private businesses. Underutilisation of
resources has led to closure of certain schools and colleges.

How LEDCs support their dependents

● support of children by extended family

● food hand-outs from govt and NGOs

● construction of orphanages eg Chinyaradzo and old people’s homes eg Dandaro

● school fees payment for the needy by BEAM, CAMFED

● construction of low income housing for the urban poor eg Garikai/Hlalani kuhle
housing scheme in Zimbabwe.
● Assistance from charity organisations such as Jairos Jiri.

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How MEDCs support their dependents

● Government support from taxes of working class.

● Elderly are given generous pensions after retirement.

● Establishment of nursing homes.

● Construction of old people’s homes.

Life expectancy

● It is the average number of years one is expected to live from time of birth.

● It is high MEDCs and low LEDCs.

Reasons for high life expectancy in MEDCs

● Better diet.

● Improved health care facilities.

● Good water supply and sanitation which reduces prevalence of water borne
diseases.
● Investment in care services for the elderly eg old people’s homes.

● High levels of education on hygiene and the need for exercises.

● Improved working conditions which reduce cases of accidents at work places.

● High levels of technology to predict natural hazards as well as high levels of

preparedness to reduce impacts of these hazards.

Reasons for low life expectancy in LEDCs

● Poor diet.

● Poor medical facilities.

● Poor water supply and sanitation.

● Poverty especially in rural areas.

● Poor working conditions such as poor safety standards at work places.

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 ● Lack of preparedness to reduce impacts of natural hazards.

Population and HIV/AIDS

● Although in general mortality continues to fall around the world, in some countries it
is rising due to HIV/AIDS.
● Around 70% of all people with HIV live in Sub- Saharan Africa.

Causes of prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Africa

● Poverty and social instability that result in family disruption.

● The low status of women so they do not have any say about sexual health.

● Sexual violence or rape.

● High mobility which is mainly linked to migratory labour systems.

Impacts of AIDS

1 Economic impacts

● There is shortage of labour as the economic active people fall sick and are unable to
work.
● Food security is threatened as there are fewer people in agriculture who able to
farm and pass on their skills to others.
● There is a vicious cycle between HIV/AIDS and poverty. HIV/AIDS prevents
development and increases impact of poverty. Poverty worsens the HIV/AIDS
situation due to the economic burdens such as debt repayment and drug/medical
costs.
● Government may have to hire expatriate workers which are expensive to pay.

● Workers will be heavily taxed by government so that it is able to buy drugs for AIDS
patients and to support orphaned children.

2 social impacts

● There is increase in child or elderly headed families. Adult deaths, especially of

parents, often cause households to be dissolved. Many children and old people have
to take care of the family.

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 ● Many children drop out of school.

● There is also a large number orphans.

3 demographic impacts

● Death rate in the economic active population increases since those who contract
the disease are mainly in this group.
● Infant and child mortality increases as HIV can be passed from mother to child.

For a named country you have studied describe the causes and the effects of HIV and AIDS on the
population. What is the government doing to reduce the impacts of the disease. [7]
Case study – Zimbabwe
According to the National Aids Council (NAC) survey in 2005, 1 in 10 people was believed to be HIV
positive.
Causes of HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe
The rapid spread of HIV/AIDS is partly explained by traditional practices such as polygamy and
inheritance laws. Some religious sects forbid the use of condoms. Most women in Zimbabwe have
low status in society so they have no say in their reproductive health and this makes them
vulnerable to infection. Many women are poor due to high unemployment rates ( around 80%) in
the country and this has promoted prostitution in cities such as Harare thereby increasing the rates
of HIV infection. Sexual violence (rape) perpetrated on the girl child is also on the rise in cities. Poor
maternal conditions in hospitals have also resulted in high rates of mother to child transmission.
Effects of HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe
In 1997 there was a high mortality rate of about 30 per 1000 due to HIV/AIDS related illnesses and
this led to fall of life expectancy from 56 years to 37 years. Many people who became ill were unable
to work leading to reduced incomes and poverty amongst many families. Many children became
orphans leading to many child headed families. There are huge expenses on the part of the
government as it takes care of a large number of orphans through food handouts and providing for
their education, for example, by Basic Education Assistance Module (BEAM). The number of street
kids has also increased in cities like Harare and Bulawayo the country.
Measures to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe
In 1997 the government of Zimbabwe established the National AIDS Council (NAC), a body to
oversee the control of the disease. NAC embarked on awareness campaigns to educate people about
the causes, effects and control of the disease. Awareness campaigns were done through dramas,
television and news papers such as The Herald. Education on abstinence, sticking to one partner and
having protected sex, is done in schools, colleges and universities in Zimbabwe. Condoms are
distributed freely in Harare, Gweru and other cities. The government also introduced an AIDS levy
which is deducted from all civil servants’ monthly salaries to fund awareness campaigns and
purchase anti-retro viral drugs. These drugs are given to AIDs patients free of charge. Government
has also established New Start Centres in cities and towns for free HIV testing and counselling. These
measures reduced the prevalence of HIV/AIDS as well as the impacts, for example, by 2005 life
expectancy was now at 55 years, an increase from 37 years in 1997.

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POPULATION POLICIES

● These are measures initiated by government to influence population growth in a

targeted direction.
● These policies are either anti-natalist (discouraging high BR) or pro-natalist
(encouraging high BR).

For a named country you have studied describe its attempt to reduce population growth or birth
rate. [7]

China’s one child policy (anti-natalist policy)

China’s birth rate reached 48/1000 between 1950s and 1960s. In the past the view was ‘the more
the people, the stronger the nation’. This led to shortage of food, water and energy to provide for a
rapidly growing population. In 1979 the Chinese government under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping
introduced the one child policy to limit population growth. The policy limited couples to one child.
Use of contraceptives such as pills, condoms and even sterilisation was highly promoted by the
government. Education on use of family planning methods was passed on to the people even in rural
areas by rural health workers. Incentives to have one child included free education, housing and
financial rewards. Those who had more than one child were fined- and there were also reports of
forced abortions and sterilisations. The marriageable ages were increased from 16 to 22 for females
and from 18 to 24 for males hence delaying births. Women education was prioritised which resulted
in their emancipation to choose their own careers and decide on family size. However, since 2009
the policy was relaxed. In Shanghai, couples were being encouraged to have two children (if they
were single children themselves).
Evaluation of the policy/ Impacts of the policy
The one child policy was a success in that by 2007 the birth rate in China had gone down to 12/1000
from 48 per 1000. The policy successfully reduced the growth of population from 3 births per
woman in 1980 to only 1.5 in 2012. However, challenges included abandoning of baby girls- with
many ending up in orphanages since Chinese society traditionally preferred boys. In 2008, it was
estimated that China had 32 million more men aged under 20 than women. The imbalance is
greatest in rural areas such as Dingzhou and Xinzhou because women are ‘marrying out’ into cities.
There is also the ‘Four- Two- One’ problem whereby one adult child is left to having to provide for
his or her two parents and four grand parents. China’s low birth rate of 12 per 1000 in 2012 has
contributed to the country’s ageing population which has now become a major concern for
government since more old people’s homes like the Beijing Ren Ai Geracomium just outside Beijing
are needed.

For a named country you have studied, describe some strategies to increase birth rate in that
country. [7]

France’s pro-natalist policy

France has taken steps to encourage fertility on a number of occasions. In 1939 the government
passed the ‘Çode de la Famille’ in Paris, which offered financial incentives to mothers who stayed at

21
home to look after children. It also banned the sale of contraceptives but this stopped in 1967. More
recent measures to encourage couples to have more children include longer maternity and paternity
leave: maternity leave, on near full pay, ranges from 20 weeks for the first child to 40 weeks or more
for the third child. There are higher child benefits and improved tax allowances for large families.
There are pension schemes for mothers and housewives. Three-child families have 30 per cent
reduction on public transport. State supported day care centres and nursery are available for infants
starting at the age of 3 months. There is preferential treatment in the allocation of government
housing. France is trying to reduce the economic cost to parents of having children.

Evaluation of the policy/Impacts of the policy

France’s pro-natalist policy has helped the country to be close to the replacement level of 2.1
children per woman. The 2012 Population Data Sheet put France’s fertility rate at 2.0. In 2010, when
the population of France rose by 0.53%, there were 802 000 births and 540 000 deaths. Although the
average age of French mothers at child birth is still rising, it is still less than in many other European
countries. French economists argue that although higher fertility means more expenditure on
childcare and education, in the longer term it gives the country a more sustainable age structure.
French commentators also argue that there is a better work/life balance in France compared with
many other European countries.

POPULATION AND RESOURCES

● Resources – these are the natural endowments of an area/country –minerals, water ,

forests, climate, soils etc and technology (the means with which to exploit/tap the
resources).

The concepts optimum population, overpopulation and under population

Optimum Population

● this is when there is a balance between population, resources and technology

available in the country.
● it is a theoretical concept / an ideal situation leading to high output per capita.

● there is no strain on resources, the population and available technology leading to

greater economic welfare.
Indicators of Optimum Population include:
● the highest standard of living

● high output per capita

● adequate provisions of food and other services

● low BR and DR hence a small NI

● efficient transport networks

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Overpopulation

● occurs when there are too many people for the available resources and technology /
number of people exceeds the carrying capacity or the resources are not enough to
sustain all people.
● overpopulation can be absolute i.e. when there are no resources to support the
population
● it can also be relative i.e. when the resources to support the population are available
but there is no technology with which to exploit the resources

Causes of Overpopulation

● high birth rate, low death rate leading to a high rate of natural increase.

● complete lack of resources to support the population as is the case with some
deserts
● lack of technology with which to exploit the available resources for use by the people

● wars and political instability impeding exploitation and development of resources

● natural disasters / catastrophes that destroy existing resources and technology

infrastructure

Problems associated with Overpopulation

● low standards of living

● hunger, insufficient food, malnutrition

● shortage of accommodation leading to overcrowding and squatter settlements.

● Deforestation leading to soil erosion and loss of soil fertility

● low industrial growth

● high rates of unemployment

● shortage of health and educational facilities

● increase in anti-social behaviour such as theft, drug abuse and prostitution.

● Poor sanitation and water shortages resulting in diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea

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 ● Traffic congestion

● Land, air and water pollution

Attempts made to address these problems

● investing in agriculture to improve food production

● infrastructure development

● birth control measures implemented and made available

● educational campaigns to reduce BR

With reference to a country you have studied, describe the causes and effects of overpopulation.
Case study :Bangladesh
Bangladesh has the 7th largest population in the world but only ranks 94th in terms of land area so it
has a high population density of over 1000 people per square km.
Causes of overpopulation in Banngladesh
Muslims make up 85% of the population and some religious leaders do not advocate the use of
contraceptives. Because of a high birth rate of about 23/1000, Bangladesh has far more people than
its resources can support. Bangladesh has few natural resources and relies on farming. Of the 73.8
million labour force 45% work in agriculture mainly as subsistence farmers.
Effects of overpopulation in Bangladesh
Bangladesh’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is only US$ 1700 per person which is far too low to
provide a good standard of living. The net migration rate is negative at -1.57/1000. An estimated
40% the population is underemployed. Many exist on a few wages for a few hours of work. Schools
and hospitals are not enough. Only 48% of the population is literate and education is only provided
for only 8 years of a person’s life. Most people have no qualifications. Infant mortality is high about
5.07%. The agricultural land on the flood plains of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers has been over
cultivated. There has been widespread deforestation for firewood on the foothills of the Himalayas
increasing flood risks. The capital Dhaka is heavily congested with traffic and houses are
overcrowded often lacking basic amenities.

Underpopulation

● this is when the population is too small to make full use of resources and the
available technology/ there are surplus resources.
● this occurs in frontier regions awaiting development e.g. remote areas of Canada ,
Australia , Siberia etc

Problems associated with underpopulation

● resources are not fully exploited

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 ● there are labour shortages to fully exploit resources.

● the country becomes defenceless because of smaller number of economic active

people
● there is problem of population ageing so government spending on elderly increases
to support old people by providing old people’s homes, pension, health care

For a named country you have studied describe the causes and impacts of under-population in
that country. [7]
Case stu3dy : Australia
With a population of 21.7 million and a labour force of only 11.6 million Australia is under-
populated.
Causes of under-population in Australia
Under-population is caused by low birth and death rates which give a natural population increase of
1.15%. Many people are educated that is 99% of the people are literate and this has reduced birth
rate due to emancipation of women and high use of contraceptives. Health care is also good, e.g the
infant mortality rate is only 0.46%. Australia has a large land mass such that its population density is
only 2.6 people per square km.
Impacts of under-population in Australia
Under-population has led to underutilisation of resources in Australia. Australia is very rich in
resources such as iron ore, coal, gold, copper, natural gas, uranium and potential for solar and wind
power development but it has limited workers to exploit these resources. Although a large
proportion of the country is desert or semi desert, there is still ample suitable land for an increase in
settlements. The quantities of many of Australia’s resources are greater than the country ‘s needs so
surpluses are exported eg coal from Newcastle, iron ore from Iron Knob. In 2010 Australia’s exports
were over US$200 billion. Its GDP per person is US$41 300. The service industry employs 75% of
Australians.

Population Density

● refers to the number of people per unit area

● population density is obtained by dividing the number of people by area in sq kms.

● density can be high, medium or low (variations in density are a result of both
physical and economic factors)
● on a map population density is represented by a choropleth /density map.

Population Distribution

● refers to the spread of people over space/area

● it is dynamic i.e. it changes with time

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 ● on maps it is represented by dot maps (where each dot represents a certain number
of people)
● variations in population distribution are a result of physical, economic and socio-
political factors

World Population Density and Distribution

● the world is populated in a very uneven way considering that there are:

● densely populated areas as found in Eastern Asia , Europe , along the East Coast of
Africa and USA as well as along river valleys, the likes of Nile in Africa, Ganges and
Indus in India and Bangladesh respectively
● Coastal areas have dense population because settlements have developed
around ports/harbours so it is easier to travel abroad. There are trade
opportunities that is imports or exports. There is much industrial
development which provide employment/job opportunities.
Coastal areas have good communications or roads or rail links. There is
growth of tourism and many people are employed in the tourism. Fishing
is also an important industry in these areas.

● areas with medium population densities as found in the interior of Africa and
America
● areas with low population density as found in deserts, mountainous areas, polar
regions and the tropical rain forest

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 ● such uneven distributions are reflective of the uneven distribution of natural
resources and other factors
● these factors can be grouped into physical and human factors

Factors affecting population density and distribution

Physical Factors
1. Rainfall

● areas that receive very high total rainfall (above 1500mm / yr) e.g. the tropical
rainforest as well as areas that receive very low rainfall(below 500mm/yr) e.g. the
deserts (Kalahari , Sahara) have very low population densities. This is because of the
prevalence of water borne diseases , high risk of flooding , poor soils due to severe
leaching etc in the tropical rainforest areas and the very low rainfall in deserts fails to
support vegetation growth and human habitation
● moderate rainfall totals are favourable and attract settlement leading to high and
moderate population densities

2. Temperature

● areas with extremely high temps e.g. deserts and very low temps e.g. the low
latitude polar regions (Canada ,Alaska , Iceland , Northern Russia) deter human
settlement and have very sparse populations. The high temps lead to the prevalence
of diseases such as malaria, cholera, sleeping sickness

[Link] of Soil

● areas with fertile soils such as the volcanic soils of the East African Rift Valley,
Indonesia , Italy as well as the rich alluviums of the Nile, Indus and Ganges valleys
attract high population densities
● poor /infertile soils (such as the sandy soils in deserts , limestone soils in Italy) on the
other hand, deter settlement as they are not conducive to farming

[Link] / height above sea level

● highlands such as those in Kenya and Zimbabwe’s Eastern Highlands have high
population densities because they are cool and receive high relief rainfall
● highlands that have scarps, thin soils and rugged terrain deter human settlement and
are sparsely populated (e.g. the Alps , Andes, Rockies ..)

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 ● Lowlands such as the Zambezi Valley and the South East part of Zimbabwe are
sparsely populated due to bleak climatic conditions (rainfall below 400mm , high
temperatures as well as prevalence of pests and diseases)
● low lying flat areas along river valleys are densely populated (the Nile , Ganges ..)

[Link] Supply

● availability of rivers that provide water for domestic , farming and industrial
purposes leads to dense populations
● areas that lack water supply are sparsely populated e.g. deserts

Human / Economic factors

● Population density and distribution worldwide is affected by the population,

resource and technology relationship

[Link] networks

● highly accessible areas with road and rail networks attract high population densities
because they allow for easy movement

2. Mining

● mining activities and supporting industrial and commercial activities lead to high
population densities e.g. –Iron and steel works : Redcliff, Kwekwe, asbestos mining in
Zvishavane, gold mining in the Rand area in South Africa and copper mining in the
Copper Belt of Zambia.

[Link] activities

● most industrial areas have high population densities because they provide lots of
employment opportunities e.g. Harare , Bulawayo locally; Tokyo – Japan , Beijing -
China

[Link] policy

● government can directly influence population density through land reform policy, for
example in Zimbabwe, former while commercial farms which used to be sparsely populated
are densely populated are now densely populated because black people have been resettled
into those farms.

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 ● The growth point policy in Zimbabwe has decentralised industrial and commercial
services to rural areas leading to the development of Growth Points e.g.
Gutu/Mpandawana, Jerera, Nyika so these areas have become densely populated.

With reference to a country you have studied explain why population distribution is
uneven.
Case study -Population distribution in Zimbabwe

Population distribution in Zimbabwe is uneven with some areas being sparsely populated
while others while others are densely populated.

Low population density areas (less than 20 pple/sq km) include the northern lowveld region
along the Zambezi valley, the south east lowveld as well as rural areas in North and South
Matabeleland provinces. These areas have low agricultural potential mainly because of low
rainfall which is usually below 500 mm per year. Temperatures are very high so people
suffer from dehydration. The areas are mosquito and tsetse infested causing malaria and
sleeping sickness respectively. The areas have lack of industries and minerals so there are
no job ophportunities.

Medium population density areas (20-40 pple/sq km) are found in most rural areas which
are formerly TribalTrust Lands. These areas include parts of Masvingo such as Bikita, Zaka
and Gutu. People are concentrated along rivers for water supply and along roads for easy
access to transport.

High population density areas (densities in excess of 40 pple/sq km) include major cities and
towns Harare, Bulawayo, Gweru, Kwekwe ....., large populations are attracted by industrial
and commercial activities. Zimbabwe’s capital, Harare, has received many migrants from rural
areas because it has the most employment opportunities. Work is available in the capital city’s
administrative offices such as Registry, Public Service and many companies that have set up in
Harare, for example, Econet and Delta. People have also migrated to Harare for better educational
facilities and higher institutions of learning such as the University of Zimbabwe. Health facilities are
better in Harare since there are many health institutions and referral hospitals such as Parirenyatwa,
with many doctors. There are many manufacturing and tertiary industries which provide
employment. Rural areas such as Murewa, Chihota, and Mutoko are agriculturally
productive owing to the favourable climatic conditions such as high rainfall and cool
temperatures.

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 POPULATION MIGRATION
Definition of Terms

Migration – refers to movement which involves change of people’s residence for a

substantial period of at least one year.

Commuting-daily movement to and from place of work or school ( can be intra-rural, intra-
urban, rural to urban.

Migrant-a person who moves from one place to another for purposes of changing
residence

Emigrant- a person who leaves a country.

Immigrant- a person who arrives in a country

Brain drain- is the exodus of educated /skilled personnel to other countries where there are
perceived greener pastures e.g. Zimbabwe to the UK.

Voluntary migration –people move by choice , they make their own decisions as a result of
pull factors e.g. Zimbabwe to the UK/SA for better education, higher salaries etc.

Involuntary /forced migration- people are compelled to move by circumstances beyond

their control (they have no choice) e.g. natural disasters , relocation from catchment areas
of dams (the case of Tokwe Mukosi) , political or economic imposition e.g. refugees

Return migration- this is when migrants move to other countries but come back home after
a certain period e.g. Zimbabwe to S.A. and S.A. to Zimbabwe

Emigration- the process of leaving one’s country and taking up permanent residence in
another country

Immigration- the process of coming into a country to take up permanent or semi-

permanent residence

Asylum seekers – these are people who have left their home country, have applied to
another country for recognition as a refugee and are awaiting decision on their application.

Refugee- a person who cannot return to his or her own place / country in fear of well
founded attempts of persecution.

Net-migration-this is the difference between the number of immigrants and number of

emigrants. It can be positive or negative. Positive net migration is when there are more
immigrants than emigrants. Negative net migration is when there are more emigrants than
immigrants.

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Classifications of Migration

Migration can be classified in terms of :

1. time i.e. temporary or permanent

2. pattern i.e. internal migration or international migration.
3. decision i.e. voluntary or involuntary (forced migration)

Causes of Migration

Conditions that cause migration can involve both push and pull factors.

Push factors

These force / compel people to move, they bring involuntary movements: [Link].

Economic factors

● lack of employment opportunities

● poor pay

● expensive services such as health and education

● expensive accommodation

● hazardous working conditions

Social factors

● slavery

● shortage of housing

● lack of educational facilities

● poor health facilities

● poor water supply and sanitation

Environmental factors

● adverse climatic conditions such as drought and hurricanes

● natural disasters eg earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis

● infertile soils which are not suitable for farming

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Political factors

● political instability or wars

● persecution

Pull Factors

These attract people to new areas and they move by choice within or across national
boundaries. Movements are voluntary.

Economic factors

● job prospects/employment opportunities

● high wages

● cheaper services

● cheaper accommodation

● perceived high standards of living

Social factors

● improved housing

● better water supply and sanitation

● better educational facilities

● advanced medical facilities

● improved transport and communication

Environmental factors

● availability of fertile soil which promote crop farming

● favourable climate e.g. high rainfall and cool temperatures which promote crop
farming.

Political factors

● Political stability and peace

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Barriers to voluntary movements

● There may be govt restrictions through need for travel documents : passports, visas,
work/study permits , emigration quotas.
● People may lack the money for food, housing or accommodation.

● The destination country may have a different language.

● people are afraid of discrimination

● there may be xenophobia attacks in destination countries

● illnesses may also prevent people from migrating.

● People are also afraid of failing to get employment or accommodation

● threat of family disintegration prevents people from migrating.

● Some people may have heavy family responsibilities

Reasons for return

● There may be racial tension in the new area e.g. xenophobia attacks on
Zimbabweans in South Africa
● People would have earned sufficient money to return home

● People return to be reunited with the family

● foreign culture may have proved unacceptable

● causes of initial migration may be no more e.g. political instability

Barriers to return

● people may have insufficient money to afford transport

● people do not return if political/religious tension is still there in original areas

Internal migration

This is movement of people within a country

Patterns of internal migration

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Rural to Urban

● common in LEDCs

Causes

● there is shortage of land / land pressure in rural areas.

● Unemployment is high in rural areas and there job opportunities in urban areas

● mechanisation on farms makes people to move to urban areas.

● People are pushed by natural hazards such as drought

● wars in rural areas force people to move to urban areas.

● There are poor standards of living in rural areas and better standards of living in
urban areas
● There are poor health and educational facilities in rural areas and better facilities in
urban areas

Impact on Source Region

● low agricultural output occurs

● there is ageing population

● rural areas face shortage of labour

● depopulation of rural areas occurs

Impact on Destination Area

● unemployment rises due to a large number of immigrants

● overcrowding becomes common leading to diseases

● there is lack of lack of accommodation

● pollution/environmental degradation increases

● there is strain on social services e.g. schools, health ...etc

Attempts to curb Rural - Urban Migration

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 ● There should be decentralisation of services and industries e.g. establishment of
growth points
● rural electrification should be done to improve living conditions

● clean water (borehole, piped water) should be provided in rural areas

● self help projects funded by govt and NGOs should be introduced.

● There should be resettlement to ease population pressure in rural areas

[Link] to Rural

-most common in LEDCs and very little in MEDCs

Causes

● Resettlement may be done to reduce pressure in rural area

● Some people may change their village due to marriage

● family disputes may force some family members to leave to another village.

● Poor soils, low rainfall and high temperatures may force people to move to another
village with friendly environmental factors.

[Link] to Urban

Causes

● relocation of company causes relocation of its workers

● people also move due to job transfer /promotion

● people also move in pursuit for higher education

● others move for prestige

● there may be high costs of living in some urban areas

● sanitation and water supply may be better in certain urban areas.

● There are better transport and communication facilities in other urban areas eg
airports
● low levels of crime in particular towns attract people

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 ● there is less pollution in particular towns

[Link] to Rural

● common in MEDCs and present in LEDCs

Causes

● shanty /squatter area clearances in urban areas force people to go to rural areas

● rise in unemployment in urban areas makes people to move to rural areas

● there may be housing shortages in urban areas

● retrenchment forces people to go to rural areas.

● Some people go to rural areas due desire to rejoin family members

● Others go rural areas due toretirement at old age

● services are cheaper in rural areas

● there less pollution in rural areas

● land for farming is available in rural areas.

● rural areas are peaceful and quiet

Case study : Internal migration to Harare

Zimbabwe’s capital, Harare, whose population density is around 40 people per square kilometre, has
continued to receive many migrants from rural areas because it has the most employment
opportunities. Work is available in the capital city’s administrative offices such as Registry, Public
Service and many companies that have set up in Harare, for example, Econet and Delta. People have
also migrated to Harare for better educational facilities and higher institutions of learning such as
the University of Zimbabwe. Health facilities are better in Harare since there are many health
institutions and referral hospitals such as Parirenyatwa, with many doctors. There are many
manufacturing and tertiary industries which provide employment.

International migration

● this refers to movement across the international boundaries/ movement from one
country to another eg from Zimbabwe to USA.

Causes -refer to push and pull factors

Problems faced by migrants when they arrive in other countries

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 ● some cannot speak the language in destination country

● discrimination may occur/racism/cultural conflicts

● some people lack skills/education/or have no experience

● others get low paying jobs.

● Some migrants fail to get employment

● Others are unable to get accommodation

● illegal migrants live in fear of deportation

● there is exploitation by employers

● migrants may find it hard to adapt to local culture

Effects of migration

Migration has impacts on both sending and receiving areas. The impacts are positive or
negative

Benefits to sending regions

● there is reduced pressure on health and education services and on housing

● there is repatriation/remittance of funds back home

● it reduces level of unemployment or underemployment

● return migrants can bring new skills and ideas to the community

Problems to sending areas

● there is poor agricultural production /less food production due to shortage of labour

● brain drain occurs causing shortage of skilled labour /personnel e.g. doctors

● there is slow pace of economic development

● family disintegration is promoted

● an ageing population occurs in communities with a large outflow of young migrants

Positive impacts on receiving areas

37
 ● There is increased labour force

● labour is cheap

● market for goods grows

● there is cultural enrichment as people from different cultures converge

● migrants bring in important skills

● population ageing is reduced because of young migrants

Negative impacts on receiving area

● there is a serious problem of overcrowding

● there is shortage of accommodation leading to squatter settlements

● Unemployment rises

● There are increased crime rates

● pressure on health and education increases

● there is increased pollution

Case study : International migration

Case study - Migration from Mexico to USA
Mexicans make up 29.5 % of all foreigners in USA. Mexican migrants account for about 20% of legal
migrants living in USA.
Push factors in Mexico
A large number of Mexicans has migrated to especially the states along the Mexican border due to a
host of push factors in Mexico. In 2010 there were poor medical facilities, for example, there were
1800 people per doctor. Adult literacy rates were 55% so there were poor educational prospects.
About 40% of the population was unemployed because of limited job opportunities. There were low
paid jobs with a GDP per capita of slightly above 14 000 dollars per year. Standards of living were
poor and there was shortage of food due to poor farming conditions. Life expectancy was low, only
72 years, due to poor health delivery system.

Pull factors in USA

Many Mexicans have migrated to the four states along the Mexican border which are California,
Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. These states have attracted more migrants because of their
proximity to the border and the high demand for immigrant farm workers. There were better
medical facilities, for example, there were only 400 people per doctor. Jobs were well paid and GDP
per capita was around 46 860 dollars per year. There were good education prospects since adult
literacy rates were 99%. Life expectancy was higher, about 76 years due better health standards and

38
diet. Many jobs were available for low paid workers such as Mexicans. There was better housing and
bright lights thereby improving the standards of living.
Negative effects in USA
Illegal migration costs the USA millions of dollars for border patrols, prions, detention, education and
emergency medical care. Mexicans are seen as a drain on the US economy since large sums of
money are to Mexico in form of remittances, for example in 2011, 22 billon dollars were remitted to
Mexico. Mexican migrants have undermined employment opportunities of low skilled US workers
and these migrant workers keep wages low which affect Americans. Unemployment in USA has risen
to about 10 percent They cause problems in cities due cultural and racial issues. About 12 million
Mexicans live in USA and this has negative environmental effects because of the increased
population.
Positive effects in USA
Mexican migrants benefit the US economy by working for low wages. Mexican culture has enriched
the US border states of California, Arizona, Texas and New Mexico with food, language and music.
Negative effects in Mexico
Brain drain is occurring out of Mexico since the skilled and enterprising people are leaving. The
Mexican countryside has shortage of economically active people. Certain villages such as Santa Ines
have lost two thirds of its inhabitants. Many economically active men migrate leaving the majority of
women and this has changed the population structure of the country.
Positive effects in Mexico
Migrants send billions of dollars every year back to Mexico, for example, in 2011, remittances
totalled over 22 billion dollars. This is the world’s biggest flow of remittances and as a national
source of income for Mexico, it is only exceeded by its oil exports. The money is used to buy food,
clothes and to pay school fees for children. Unemployment pressure has reduced in cities such as
Mexico city. There is also lower pressure on housing stock and public services. Migrants returning to
Mexico have brought new skills into the country.

39