BUGEMA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTIONG AND INFORMATICS
NUMERICAL COMPUTING
COURSE WORK
AMONGIN GRACE 23/BCC/BU/R/0010
SUBMITTED TO MR: LABAN ONYANGO
1. Introduction to computers and computing concepts
A computer is an electronic programmable machine that accepts data as input process it and
gives output in form of information.
It is a machine, electronic in nature, which accepts structured input, processes it according to
prescribed rules (Computer program) and produces the results as an output.
Alternatively, computer is a device that works under the control of stored programs,
automatically accepting, storing, and processing data to produce information as a result.
Types of computers, based on;
(i)
Principles of operation;
Computer systems may be classified according to the data they are designed to process or
principles of operation and these are:
Analog Computers:
• The analog computers do not directly interact with numbers, but rather deal with variables
measured along a continuous scale, like the temperature of a room.
• It uses continuous variables for mathematical operations and utilizes mechanical or
electrical energy.
• Analog computers may be accurate to within 0.1% of the correct value.
• Analog computer can perform several mathematical operations simultaneously.
Digital Computers
A digital computer operates on discrete data.
It works basically by directly counting numbers that represent numerals, letters or other
functional symbols.
Hybrid Computers
A hybrid computing system is one in which desirable characteristics of both the analog and
digital computers are integrated.
In an intensive care unit, analog computers may measure the patient's heart rate, temperature,
etc.
The measurements may then be converted into numbers and supplied to the digital part of the
system which will thereafter regulate the flow of certain medications.
(ii) Application
Application can be classified into two classes.
• Special purpose computers in which the instructions are stored in firm ware or wired in
to or permanently stored in the machine. The processors installed in automobile in the
fuel, ignition, braking system, to mention but a few are examples of such computer.
What this type of computer lacks in variety, it makes up in speed and efficiency
• General purpose digital computer by using different stored programs, can, thus, be used
in countless applications. The versatility of the systems is limited only by human
imaginations.
(iii) size and capabilities.
In accordance with class (size) computers can be classified as
Supercomputers are the largest computers.
They are the most powerful, the most expensive, and the fastest, capable of processing trillions
of instructions per second.
Users of these computers are governmental agencies, such as the, National Weather Service,
and the National Defense Agency.
Also, they are used in the making of movies, space exploration, and the design of many other
machines.
Mainframe Computers.
The second largest computers are called mainframes.
Mainframe computers process data at very high rates of speed, measured in the millions of
instructions per second.
They are very expensive, costing millions of dollars in some cases.
Mainframes are designed for multiple users and process vast amounts of data quickly.
Banks, insurance companies, manufacturers, mail-order companies, and airlines are typical
users.
Mainframes are often ‘servers’-- computers that control the networks of computers.
Minicomputers
A minicomputer system is a small general-purpose computer varying in size from a desktop
model to a unit the size of a four-drawer filing cabinet".
Microcomputers
Microcomputer is a computer with a microprocessor and its central processing unit is known as
a microcomputer.
They do not occupy space as much as mainframes.
When supplemented with a keyboard and a mouse, microcomputers are known as personal
computers.
A monitor, a keyboard and other similar input output devices, computer memory in the form of
RAM and a power supply unit come packaged in a microcomputer.
These computers can fit on desks or tables and serve as the best choices for single-user tasks.
Notebook Computers
This can fit into a briefcase and weigh fewer than two pounds, yet it can compete with the
microcomputer.
A larger, heavier version is called a laptop computer.
Notebooks generally cost more than microcomputers but can run most of the microcomputer
software and are more versatile.
Like other computers, notebook computers are getting faster, lighter, and more functional.
PDAs
The smallest computer is the handheld computer called a personal digital assistant or a PDA.
PDAs are used to track appointments and shipments as well as names and addresses.
They are called pen-based computers because they utilize a pen-like stylus that accepts hand-
written input directly on a touch-sensitive screen.
First Generations 1951- 1958
Used Vacuum Tubes for circuitry
Magnetic Drum were used for memory
Hard Wire Programs in computers
Input was in form of punch cards and output was printouts. Examples include
IBM 650, Univac I, ENIAC
They generated a lot of heat and consumed a lot of electricity.
Second Generation 1959-1964
They used Transistors instead of vacuum tubes
This invention of the transistor which was faster, and smaller required considerably less power
to operate, they generated a great deal of electricity.
Magnetic Cores were used for memory
They still used Punch Cards as input and printout as output, examples include
CDC, GE, IBM
Third Generation 1965-1974
By the late 1960’s devices which included more than one circuit on a single silicon chip became
available
Silicon Chips (Integrated circuits) = IC
Cores, IC’s
128,000 bits
Keyboards were introduced for input
IBM, NCR, Honeywell
Fourth Generation 1975-1989
computers, appearing in the mid-1970, are those (such as microcomputers) in which large scale
integration (LSI) enabled thousands of circuits to be incorporated on one chip. 100 million bits
Examples include Apple, Xerox, Texas, Instrument, Hewlett-Packard
Fifth Generation 1990-present
Silicon Chips (Very Large Integrated Circuits) computers, for example Pentium, combined VLSI
with sophisticated approaches to computing including artificial intelligence and true distributed
processing.
Computers that are able to think and act like human beings.
(2) Computing concepts
Advantages of computers
It helps you automate various tasks that you cannot do manually.
It helps you organize your data and information in a better way.
It has much more computing and calculating power then an ordinary human.
It may help your work to be a lot easier.
It may be the storage of your important data and files.
It may be your handy book.
It may help you solve problems faster than an ordinary human being can do.
It has speed, storage, reliability, consistency and communications.
It helps you to find useful information using the Internet.
It helps in businesses, factories, offices, schools and homes.
Disadvantages
It can potentially destroy your social life and interactions with humans if you do not
maintain the balance.
It may cause the destruction of your eye sight due to radiation.
It may cause pimples and wrinkles.
It may damage your studies and life.
Too much time in front of monitor may adverse effect your eye sight and can also make you
fat.
The way it distracts and can deviate our thoughts and activities towards unproductive
activities.
It could cause violation of privacy, impact on labor force, health risks, impact on
environment, distraction from work, and possible antisocial influences.
getting away from their real life and getting into bad lines
Characteristics of computers
Speed, Reliability, Storage Capacity, Productivity, Automation, and Diligence
Computers of all sizes have common characteristics -- speed, reliability, storage capacity,
and productivity. Computers are the foundation of business, travel, and leisure life today.
Computers provide the processing speed required by all facets of society. The quick service
we expect at the bank, at the grocery store, on the stock exchange, and on the Internet are
dependent on the speed of computers.
Automation is the ability of a computer to work without human supervision.
Diligence is the ability of a computer to work without getting tired.
Parts of a computer
Hardware
The term hardware refers to the physical components of a computer such as the system unit,
mouse, keyboard, monitor etc.
Software
The software is the collection of instructions which makes the computer work.
For instance, when you type in words via the keyboard, the software is responsible for
displaying the correct letters, in the correct place on the screen.
Software is held either on the computer’s hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD or on a diskette (floppy disk)
and is loaded from the disk into the computers RAM (Random Access Memory), as and when
required.
software components
Computer Software can be divided into:
System programs which manage the operation of the computer itself
Application programs, which solve problems for the users.
The Operating System controls the entire Computers’ resources and provides the base upon
which the application programs can be written
An OS is the core software component of a computer program that makes the computing power
available to users by controlling the hardware using “Drivers”.
3. Computer organization.
(i) Input Devices
An input device is a piece of equipment that enables data to be entered into a computer.
Input is any data or instructions entered into the computer’s memory
Input devices are types of hardware that enable you to get programs, data, commands, and
responses into the computer’s memory
Keyboard
The keyboard allows the computer user to enter words, numbers, punctuation, symbols, and
special function commands into the computer’s memory
Types of Keyboards
Enhanced or Extended keyboard – Typically 101 keys laid out in the QWERTY fashion; connected
to the computer by a serial cable
Cordless keyboard – Uses infrared or radio wave signals
Mouse
The mouse is the most widely used pointing device
A mouse is palm sized
As the mouse is moved, its movements are mirrored by the on-screen pointer
Mouse pad – clean, flat surface for mouse movement
Types of Mouse
Wheel mouse – Contains a rotating wheel used to scroll vertically within a text document;
connects to PS/2 port or USB port
Cordless mouse – Uses infrared signals to connect to the computer’s IrDA port; it must be
within sight of the receiving port
How a Mouse Works
Mouse buttons enable the user to initiate actions
Clicking (left-, right-, or double-clicking) allows the user to select an item on the screen or open
a program or dialog box
Click and drag – Holding down the left mouse button and moving the mouse enables the user to
move objects on the screen
Alternative Input Devices
Speech Recognition – Microphone
Speech recognition is a type of input in which the computer recognizes words spoken into a
microphone
Special software and a microphone are required
A microphone – an input device that converts sound input into electrical signals
Latest technology uses continuous speech recognition where the user does not have to
pause between words
Digital Camera
Video-conferencing
Web Cam
(ii) Output Devices
Output devices are peripheral devices that enable users to view or hear the computer’s
processed data
Visual output – Text, graphics, and video
Audio output – Sounds, music, and synthesized speech
Visual Display System
A visual display system is composed of two parts:
Video adapter – Responsible for video quality
Monitor – Displays the video adapter’s output
Video Adapter
A video adapter is also called display adapter, video card, or graphics card
It plugs into an expansion slot on the motherboard
It contains memory called video RAM (VRAM)
It is designed to work with digital or analog monitors
It converts digital signals to analog
It determines a monitor’s maximum resolution (VGA/Super VGA)
It determines a monitor’s refresh rate
3D graphics adapter – Enables 3-dimensional images
Multi-display video adapter – Permits a connection of two monitors at a time
Monitors
A monitor is a peripheral device which displays computer output on a screen.
Screen output is referred to as soft copy.
Types of monitors:
Cathode-ray tube (CRT)
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD or flat-panel)
Cathode-ray tube (CRT)
Resembles televisions
Uses picture tube technology
Less expensive than a LCD monitor
Takes up more desk space and uses more energy than LCD monitors
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
Cells sandwiched between two transparent layers form images
Used for notebook computers, PDAs, cellular phones, and personal computers
More expensive than a CRT monitor
Takes up less desk space and uses less energy than CRT monitors
Types of LCD monitors:
Passive-matrix LCD
Active-matrix LCD
Gas plasma display
Field emission display
Monitor Specifications
Screen size – The diagonal measurement of the screen surface in inches (15, 17, 19, 21)
Resolution – The sharpness of the image determined by the number of horizontal and vertical
dots (pixels) that the screen can display (800 x 600, 1024 x 768, 1600 x 1200)
Refresh rate – The speed at which the screen is redrawn (refreshed) and measured in Hertz (Hz)
(60Hz, 75Hz). The frequency at which a monitor can draw data from an external source in one
second.
Printers
A printer is a peripheral device that produces a physical copy or hard copy of the computer’s
output
Two basic types:
Impact printer
Non-impact printer
Impact Printer
An impact printer is a printer that has a print head that contacts the paper to produce a
character
It uses ink ribbon
It is noisy, produces Near-letter quality printouts, and is not commonly used today
Dot-matrix – Pins are used to make characters
Dot-matrix
A dot matrix printer or impact matrix printer is a type of computer printer with a print head that
runs back and forth, or in an up and down motion, on the page and prints by impact,
striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like the print mechanism on a
typewriter.
Advantages
Dot matrix printers can print on multi-part stationery or make carbon-copies. Impact
printers have one of the lowest printing costs per page.
They are good, reliable workhorses ideal for use in situations where printed content is more
important than quality. They can operate in harsh conditions.
Disadvantages
Impact printers create noise when the pins or typeface strike the ribbon to the paper.
They can only print lower-resolution graphics, with limited color performance, limited quality,
and lower speeds compared to non-impact printers.
Uses
Dot matrix impact technology remains in use in devices such as cash registers, ATM, Fire alarm
systems, and many other point-of-sales terminals.
Non-impact Printer
Inkjet printer, also called a bubble-jet, makes characters by inserting dots of ink onto paper
Letter-quality printouts
Cost of printer is inexpensive but ink is costly
Inkjet printer
Inkjet printers create text and images on the surface of the paper by spraying small droplets of
ink on them.
All the droplets are very small in size and are also positioned very precisely. Inkjet printers are
also very popular since they have now become inexpensive, and also easy to use, plus they can
produce high quality text and graphics.
The speed of these printers are expressed as pages per minute (ppm) and also the resolution is
expressed as dots per inch (dpi).
Multifunction Printer
A multifunction printer combines the functions of a non-impact printer, scanner, fax
machine, and copier in one unit
Plotter
A plotter is a printer that uses a pen that moves over a large revolving sheet of paper
It produces high-quality images
It is used in engineering, drafting, and map making.
Audio Output
Audio output is the ability of the computer to output sound
Two components are needed:
Sound card – Plays contents of digitized recordings
Speakers – Attached to sound card
Digital formats include WAV, MPEG, MP3, and MIDI
(ii) Processing units
The Arithmetic/Logical Unit (ALU)
This carries out arithmetic operations on integer (whole number) and real (with a decimal
point) operands.
It can also perform simple logical tests for equality and greater than and less than between
operands.
Registers are temporary storage area inside a CPU
It is a high-speed memory which holds only data for immediate processing and results of this
processing
CPU manufacturers
There are basically two best known makers of CPUs for consumer computers that is AMD and
Intel.
AMD's current line of processors includes Athlon, Phenom, Sempron and Turion processors
Intel's current line of processors includes: the Celeron, Pentium, Core 2, Centrino and Centrino
2 processors.
Today, Intel is the best-known manufacturer of computer CPUs.
Most CPUs conform to the von Neumann architecture, which says that the CPU must fetch,
decode, execute, and write back the data in a fairly rapid succession.
(iii) External storage devices
A storage device is a hardware device designed to store information.
The examples of these devices include the following;
Flash disk
External hard disk
Memory cards
CDS.
4. Problem solving and algorithm.
Problem solving involves the process of analyzing, and resolving computational problems.
Algorithm is a step-by-step procedure of solving a specific class of problems.
Floor charting.
This is a graphical representation of an algorithm process using shapes, and arrows illustrating
the flow of logic.
It is used in communicating ideas, debugging and testing.
Structured logic.
it refers to systematic approach of problem solving that involves breaking complex problems,
applying modular programing.
References
Patterson, D. A., & Hennessy, J. L. (2017). Computer organization and design. (Missing publisher)
- Bryant, R. E., & O'Hallaron, D. R. (2016). Computer systems: A programmer's perspective.
(Missing publisher)
- Stallings, W. (2016). Computer organization and architecture. (Missing publisher)
- Harris, D. M., & Harris, S. L. (2017). Digital design and computer architecture. (Missing
publisher)
- Cormen, T. H., Leiserson, C. E., Rivest, R. L., & Stein, C. (2022). Introduction to algorithms.
(Missing publisher)
- Hanly, J. R., & Koffman, E. B. (2019). Problem solving and program design in C. (Missing
publisher)