Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics and
Aerodynamics
Applied Building Science I (ABC105D)
molefefv@[Link]
By: Dr F.V. Molefe (molefefv@[Link])
2024
Contents
❑Introduction
❖Learning Outcome 12: CH-11 Fluids (Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics and
Aerodynamics).
Outcomes: Explain, apply and calculate the following principles in laminar
flow relative to the construction industry:
❖Pressure in a fluid.
❖Pressure gauges.
❖Archimedes' principle.
❖ Pascal’s principle in the concept of pump and hydraulic jacks.
❖Flow rate and the continuity equation.
Faculty of Sciences
Department of Physics
Introduction
From the physics concept, a fluid is a liquid, gas, or any material that
continuously deforms under an applied shear stress, or external force. In
contrast to a solid, fluid is a substance that flows. The physics of fluids is the
basis of hydraulic engineering, a branch of engineering that is applied in a
great many fields. A nuclear engineer might study the fluid flow in the
hydraulic system of an aging nuclear reactor, while a medical engineer would
be interested in the study of blood flow in the arteries of an aging patient. An
environmental engineer might be concerned about the drainage from waste
sites or the efficient irrigation of farmlands. An aeronautical engineer might
design the hydraulic system controlling the wing flaps that allow a jet
airplane to land. Fluids entails hydrodynamics, hydrostatics and
aerodynamics in that they have zero shear modulus which makes them
substances which cannot resist any shear force applied to them.
Faculty of Sciences
Department of Physics
Mass Density
DEFINITION OF MASS DENSITY
The mass density of a substance is the mass of a substance
divided by its volume:
m
=
V
SI Unit of Mass Density: kg/m3
Mass Density
Mass Density
Example 1 Blood as a Fraction of Body Weight
The body of a man whose weight is 690 N contains about 5.2x10-3 m3 of
blood.
(a) Find the blood’s weight and (b) express it as a
percentage of the body weight.
(
m = V = 5.2 10 m −3 3
)(1060 kg )
m = 5.5 kg
3
Mass Density
(a) ( )
W = mg = (5.5 kg ) 9.80 m s 2 = 54 N
54 N
(b) Percentage = 100% = 7.8%
690 N
Mass Density
Exercise The TUT Pretoria campus pool is circular with a radius r =
480 m. During winter, ice develops in the pool with a thickness of
0.010 m. Calculate the mass of the ice. (ρice = 917 kg/m3).
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑 = 𝜋(480)2 0.010 = 7.24 × 103 𝑚3
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 917 7240 = 6.64 × 106 𝑘𝑔
Pressure in a fluid
From our everyday experience, we have become familiar with
the fact that matter occurs in three different forms-solid, liquid,
and gas.
Liquids and gases are sometimes grouped together as fluids
because they flow very readily under the application of an
external force, while solids do not.
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit
area. We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a
liquid.
The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress.
Pressure in a fluid
Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of
Newton's per square meter (𝑁/𝑚2 ), which is called a Pascal (Pa). That
is 1 Pa = 1 𝑁/𝑚2 .
Pressure in a fluid
People who have fixed a flat tire know
something about a pressure. The final
step is to re-inflate the tire to the proper
pressure. When air is added from a
pump, the air molecules collide with the
walls of a tire allowing the air to exert a
force against every part of the wall
surface.
Pressure in a fluid
Example The Force on a Swimmer
Suppose the pressure acting on the back of a
swimmer’s hand is 1.2x105 Pa. The surface
area of the back of the hand is 8.4x10-3m2.
(a) Determine the magnitude of the force that
acts on it.
(b) Discuss the direction of the force.
Pressure
F
P=
A
(
F = PA = 1.2 10 N m 8.4 10 m
5 2
)( −3 2
)
= 1.0 10 N
3
Since the water pushes perpendicularly
against the back of the hand, the force
is directed downward in the drawing.
Pressure in a fluid
The fluid exerts pressure internally
on the surface of a container. The
internal pressure is the same in all
directions.
Atmospheric Pressure at Sea
Level: 1.013x105 Pa = 1 atm.
Pressure in a fluid
Pressure in a fluid
The fluid is at rest (equilibrium) and it’s
acceleration is zero.
F y = P2 A − P1 A − mg = 0
P2 A = P1 A + mg
m = V
Pressure in a fluid
V = Ah
P2 A = P1 A + Vg
P2 A = P1 A + Ahg
P2 = P1 + hg
Pressure in a fluid
Example: The Swimming Hole
Points A and B are located a distance of 5.50 m beneath the surface
of the water. Find the pressure at each of these two locations.
Pressure in a fluid
P2 = P1 + gh
atmospheric pressure
( ) ( )( )
P2 = 1.01105 Pa + 1.00 103 kg m 3 9.80 m s 2 (5.50 m )
= 1.55 10 Pa
5
Pressure gauges
The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute
pressure, and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e.,
absolute zero pressure).
Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the
atmosphere, and so they indicate the difference between the
absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure.
This difference is called the gauge pressure.
Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called
vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum
gages that indicate the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
Pressure gauges
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities
and are related to each other by the following equations.
Pressure gauges
Pressure gauges
One of the simplest pressure gauges is the mercury barometer used
for measuring atmospheric pressure.
The pressure P2 at point A at the
P2 = P1 + gh bottom of the mercury column is
the same as the pressure at point B
namely atmospheric pressure
Patm = gh because the two points are at same
level. With P1=0 Pa and P2=Patm.
h=
Patm
=
(
1.01105 Pa )
( )(
g 13.6 103 kg m 3 9.80 m s 2 )
= 0.760 m = 760 mm
Pressure gauges Another pressure gauge called open
P2 = PB = PA tube manometer, with one side of
the U-tube open to atmospheric
PA = P1 + gh pressure. The tube contains mercury
and the other side is connected to a
container whose pressure P2 is to be
measured. When the pressure in the
container is equal to the
atmospheric pressure, the liquid
levels on both sides of the U-tube
are the same and it lowers on the
absolute pressure
left if pressure is greater in the
P2 − Patm = gh container.
gauge pressure
Archimedes' principle
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
Any fluid applies a buoyant force to an object that is partially or
completely immersed in it; the magnitude of the buoyant force equals
the weight of the fluid that the object displaces:
FB = Wfluid
Magnitude of Weight of
buoyant force displaced fluid
Anyone who has tried to push a beach ball under the water has felt how the
water pushes back with a strong upward force. This upward force is called
buoyant force and all fluids apply such a force to objects that are immersed in
them. Buoyant force exists because fluid pressure is larger at greater depths.
Archimedes' principle
A cylinder held under the surface of liquid. P2 − P1 = gh
FB = P2 A − P1 A = (P2 − P1 )A
V = hA Volume of liquid
FB = ghA 𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
V g
FB =
mass of
displaced
fluid
Archimedes' principle
An object is held by the hand in (a), if it
were to be released it would fall further into
the liquid.
If the object is floating then the magnitude of
the buoyant force is equal to the magnitude
of its weight.
Even if an object sinks, there is still a
buoyant force acting on it, it’s just that the
buoyant force is not large enough to
balance the weight.
Archimedes’ Principle
Example 9 A Swimming
Raft
The raft is made of solid
square pinewood. Determine
whether the raft floats in water
and if so, how much of the raft
is beneath the surface.
Archimedes’ Principle
Vraft = (4.0 m )(4.0 m )(0.30 m ) = 4.8 m 3
F B
max
= Vg = waterVwater g
( )( )(
= 1000 kg m 3 4.8m 3 9.80 m s 2 )
= 47000 N
Archimedes’ Principle
Wraft = mraft g = pineVraft g
( )( )(
= 550 kg m 3 4.8m 3 9.80 m s 2 )
= 26000 N 47000 N
The raft floats!
Archimedes’ Principle
If the raft is floating:
Wraft = FB
26000 N = waterVwater g
26000 N = (1000 kg m )(4.0 m )(4.0 m )h(9.80 m s )
3 2
26000 N
h= = 0.17 m
( ) (
1000 kg m (4.0 m )(4.0 m ) 9.80 m s
3 2
)
Pascal’s principle in the concept of pump and hydraulic jacks
Interconnected cylindrical chambers of different
diameters with the connecting tube all
completely filled with a liquid. A larger chamber
is sealed with a cap and a smaller chamber is
fitted with a movable piston.
PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
Any change in the pressure applied to a
completely enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to all parts of the fluid and
enclosing walls.
Pascal’s principle in the concept of pump and hydraulic jacks
P2 = P1 + g (0 m )
As long as the tops of the left
and the right chambers are at
F2 F1
= the same level, the pressure
A2 A1 increment 𝜌𝑔ℎ is zero, so that P2
= P1
A2
F2 = F1
A1
Pascal principle in concept of pump and hydraulic jacks
Example 7 A Car Lift
The input piston has a radius of 0.0120 m
and the output plunger has a radius of
0.150 m.
The combined weight of the car and the
plunger is 20500 N. Suppose that the input
piston has a negligible weight, and the
bottom surfaces of the piston and plunger
are at the same level. What is the required
input force?
Pascal principle in concept of pump and hydraulic jacks
F2 F1
=
A2 A1
(0.0120 m ) 2
1 2 = (20500 N )
FF = 131 N
(0.150 m )2
Flow rate and the continuity equation
The mass of fluid per second that flows through a tube is called the
mass flow rate.
Have you ever used your thumb to control the
water flowing from the hose? If so, you have
seen that the water velocity increases when your
thumb reduces the cross-sectional area of the
hose opening. This kind of fluid behavior is
described by the equation of continuity.
This means, if a fluid enters one end of a pipe at
a certain rate, then fluid must leave at the same
rate, assuming there are no places to add or
remove fluid in between.
Flow rate and the continuity equation
The small mass of fluid element at
m = V = A v
t
distance
position 2 has area 𝐴2 , the fluid has
speed 𝑣2 and a density 𝜌2 . At
location 1, the corresponding
quantities are 𝐴1 , 𝑣1 and 𝜌1 . During
a small time interval ∆𝑡, the fluid at
point 2 moves a distance 𝑣2 ∆𝑡. The
volume of fluid that has flowed past
this point is the cross-sectional area
times this distance 𝐴2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡 . The
m2 m1
= 2 A2 v2 = 1 A1v1 mass of this fluid is ∆𝑚2 =
t t 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡
Flow rate and the continuity equation
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
The mass flow rate has the same value at every position along a
tube that has a single entry and a single exit for fluid flow.
1 A1v1 = 2 A2 v2
SI Unit of Mass Flow Rate: kg/s
𝜌 → fluid density (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
A →cross-sectional area of tube (𝑚2 )
𝑣 →fluid speed (𝑚/s)
Flow rate and the continuity equation
The volume of an incompressible fluid does not change during flow, so
that 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 and the equation of continuity reduces to:
Incompressible fluid: A1v1 = A2 v2
The quantity Av represents the volume of a fluid per second (𝑚3 /𝑠).
Volume flow rate Q: Q = Av
Flow rate and the continuity equation
Exercise Injured player
A TUT Vikings player got injured during a rugby match and is
receiving a fluid intravenously. The fluid has a density of 1030
kg/m3, and 9.5 x 10-4 m3 of it flows into the patient every six
hours. Calculate the mass flow rate in kg/s.
Flow rate and the continuity equation
Example A Garden Hose
A garden hose has an unobstructed
opening with a cross sectional area of
2.85x10-4m2. It fills a bucket with a volume
of 8.00x10-3m3 in 30 seconds.
Find the speed of the water that leaves the
hose through (a) the unobstructed opening
and (b) an obstructed opening with half as
much area.
Flow rate and the continuity equation
Q = Av
(a)
v= =
(
Q 8.00 10 m (30.0 s )
−3 3
)
= 0.936 m s
A 2.85 10 m
-4 2
(b) A1v1 = A2 v2
v1 = (2)(0.936 m s ) = 1.87 m s
A1
v2 =
A2
Summary
• Gases and liquids are fluids because they flow very readily under external
pressure.
• Pressure is a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area (P=F/A).
• Any fluid applies a buoyant force to an object partially or completely
immersed in it.
• Pascal’s principle states that when there is an increase in pressure at any
point in a confined fluid, there is an equal increase at every other point in
the container.
• According to the equation of continuity, if a fluid enters one end of a pipe at
a certain rate, then fluid must leave at the same rate, assuming there are no
places to add or remove fluid in between.
Faculty of Sciences
Department of Physics
End!