Subtraction

∙ It is a special case of addition.

∙ The two numbers in subtraction are subtrahend and minuend.
∙ The result is the difference.
∙ To subtract +6 from +9, it is also equivalent to add -6 to +9.
∙ So, to subtract two signed numbers, take the 2’s complement of the subtrahend and add. Discard
any final carry bit.

6. BINARY ARITHMETIC
6.1 BINARY ADDITION
The binary addition table is as follows:
A+B SUM CARRY
0+0 0 0
0+1 1 0
1+0 1 0
1+1 0 1
Illustration 1:
Add (1010)2 and (0011)2
1010 (Augend)
0011 (Addend)
-----------------------
1101 (sum)
-----------------------
The addition manipulated above as follows.
Step 1: The least significant bits are added, i.e. 0+1 =1 with a carry of 0
Step 2: The carry in the previous is added to the next higher significant bits, i.e. 0+1+1= 0 with a carry 1.
Step 3: The carry in the previous is added to the next higher significant bits, i.e. 1+0+0 =1 with a carry 0.
Step 4: The preceding carry is added to the most significant bit i.e. 0+1+0 = 1 with a carry 0. Thus the
sum is 1101.

6.2 BINARY SUBTRACTION

The binary subtraction table is as follows:

A-B DIFFERENCE BORROW

0-0 0 0
0-1 1 1
1-0 1 0
1-1 0 0
Illustration 1:
Subtract (0101)2 from (1011)2
1011 (Minuend)
0101 (Subtrahend)
---------------------------
0110 (Difference)
---------------------------
The steps are described below
Step1: the LSB in the first column are 1 and 1. Hence, the difference is 1 - 1 = 0
Step2: The column, the subtraction is performed as 1 – 0 = 1
Step3: In the third column, the difference is given by 0 – 1 =1
Step 4: In the fourth column (MSB), the difference is given by 0 – 0 = 0 since 1 is borrowed for third
column.

6.3 BINARY MULTIPLICATION

The binary multiplication table is as follows:
A *B PRODUCT
0*00
0*10
1*00
1*11

Binary multiplication uses add and shift process

Binary multiplication is similar to decimal multiplication.
Illustration 1:
Multiplicand * Multiplier
10110.1x01001.1
----------------------------------
101101
101101
000000 ----------------------------------
000000
Partial Product
101101
000000

011010101.11 (Final product)

-----------------------------------
The steps are described below
Step 1: The LSB of the multiplier is taken. If multiplier bit is 1, the multiplicand is copied as such and if
the multiplier bit is 0 zero is placed in all the bit positions.
Step 2: The next higher significant bit of the multiplier is taken and, the partial product is written with the
shift to the left, as in step 1.
Step 3: step 2 is repeated for all other higher significant bits.
Step 4: The partial product terms are added which gives the actual product of multiplier and the
multiplicand.

6.4 BINARY DIVISION:

The binary division table is as follows:
A÷B Result
0÷0 Not allowed
0÷1 0
1÷0 Not allowed
1÷1 1

Binary division uses subtract and shift process

 Binary division is similar to decimal division.
Division by 0 is meaningless.
Illustration 1:
Dividend ÷ Divisor
11011.1÷ 101
101.1 (QUOTIENT)
DIVISOR 101 √11011.1 (DIVIDEND)
101
--------------
111
101
--------------
101
101
--------------
0
--------------

[Link] CODES
Binary codes are codes which are represented in binary system with modification from the original
one. The group of symbols is called as a code. The digital data is represented, stored and transmitted as
group of binary bits. This group is also called as binary code. The binary code is represented by the number
as well as alphanumeric letter.
Advantages of Binary Code
Following is the list of advantages that binary code offers.
1. Binary codes are suitable for the computer applications.
2. Binary codes are suitable for the digital communications.
3. Binary codes make the analysis and designing of digital circuits if we use the binary codes.
4. Since only 0 and 1 are being used, implementation becomes easy.
7.1 Classification of binary codes:The codes are broadly categorized into following four categories.
∙ Weighted Codes
∙ Non-Weighted Codes
∙ Binary Coded Decimal Code
∙ Alphanumeric Codes
∙ Error Codes
7.1.1 Weighted codes: Weighted binary codes are those binary codes which obey the positional weight
principle. Each position of the number represents a specific weight
Decimal 8421 5421 2421 5211
0 0000 0000 0000 0000
1 0001 0001 0001 0001
2 0010 0010 0010 0011
3 0011 0011 0011 0101
4 0100 0100 0100 0111
5 0101 1000 1011 1000
6 0110 1001 1100 1010
7 0111 1010 1101 1100
8 1000 1011 1110 1110
 9 1001 1100 1111 1111

For example, in 8421BCD code, 1001 the weights of 1, 0, 0, 1 (from left to right) are 8, 4, 2 and 1
respectively. The codes 8421BCD, 2421BCD, 5211BCD are all weighted codes.
7.1.2 Non-weighted codes: The non-weighted codes are not positionally weighted. In other words, each
digit position within the number is not assigned a fixed value (or weight).
Examples are
∙ Excess-3
∙ Gray code
DECIMAL EXCESS - 3 GRAY CODE
0 0011 0000
1 0100 0001
2 0101 0011

6.1.3 EXCESS – 3 CODES:-

∙ This is another form of BCD code, in which each decimal digit is coded into a 4-bit binary code. ∙ The
code for each decimal digit is obtained by adding decimal 3 to the natural BCD code of the digit.
GRAY CONVERSION:-
∙ Record the mostsignificant bit add the binary MSB to the next significant bit of the Gray code. ∙
Record the result, ignoring carrier continue the process, until the LSB is reached. REFLECTIVE CODES: A
code is reflective when the code is self-complementing. In otherwords, when the code for 9 is the
complement the code for 0, 8 for 1, 7 for 2, 6 for 3 and 5 for 4. 2421BCD, 5421BCD and Excess-3 code are
reflective codes.
SEQUENTIAL CODES: In sequential codes, each succeeding 'code is one binary number greater than its
preceding code. This property helps in manipulation of data. 8421 BCD and Excess-3 are sequential codes.
ALPHANUMERIC CODES: Codes used to represent numbers, alphabetic characters, symbols and various
instructions necessary for conveying intelligible information. ASCII, EBCDIC, UNICODE are the most
commonly used alphanumeric codes.

[Link] code
Binary codes for decimal digits require a minimum of four bits. Numerous different codes can be obtained
by arranging four or more bits in ten distinct possible combinations. A few possibilities are tabulated.
[Link] detection code
In data transmission, Interference and physical defects in the communication medium can cause random bit
errors. As the signal is transmitted through a media, the signal gets corrupted because of noise and
distortion. Therefore the media is not reliable. To achieve a reliable communication through this unreliable
media, there is need for detecting the error in the signal so that suitable mechanism can be devised to take
corrective actions.
Error coding is a method of detecting and correcting these errors to ensure information is transferred intact
from its source to its destination
The errors can be divided into two types:
• Single-bit Error: only one bit of given data unit (such as a byte, character, or data unit) is changed from 1
to 0 or from 0 to 1.
• Burst Error: two or more bits in the data unit have changed from 0 to 1 or vice-versa. (Here doesn’t
necessary means that error occurs in consecutive bits)
Error Detecting Codes:
Basic approach used for error detection is the use of redundancy, where additional bits are added to
facilitate detection and correction of errors.
Popular techniques are:
• Simple Parity check
• Two-dimensional Parity check
• Checksum
• Cyclic redundancy check
Detecting Errors using simple parity check
Suppose we are transmitting 7-bit ASCII characters. A parity bit is added to each character to make it 8
bits. Parity can detect all single-bit errors
–If even parity is used and a single bit changes, it will change the parity to odd, which will be detected at
the receiver end
–The receiver end can detect the error, but cannot correct it because it does not know which bit is erroneous
Parity can also detect some multiple-bit errors
Table 1 shows the four bit data word and its corresponding code words
Decimal value Data block Parity bit Code word 0 0000 0 00000
1 0001 1 00011
2 0010 1 00101
3 0011 0 00110 4 0100 1 01001 5 0101 0 01010 6 0110 0 01100 7 0111 1
01111 8 1000 1 10001 9 1001 0 10010 10 1010 0 10100 11 1011 1 10111 12
1100 0 11000 13 1101 1 11011 14 1110 1 11101 15 1111 0 11110

[Link] Code- Reflection and Self Complementary codes

∙ Gray Code is a non-weighted code which belongs to a class of codes called minimum change codes. ∙
Gray Code is an alternative binary representation, devised such that, between any two adjacent
numbers, only one bit changes at a time.
Binary Dec Gray
00000 0 00000
00001 1 00001
00010 2 00011
00011 3 00010
00100 4 00110
00101 5 00111
00110 6 00101
00111 7 00100
01000 8 01100
01001 9 01101
01010 10 01111
01011 11 01110
01100 12 01010
01101 13 01011
01110 14 01001
01111 15 01000
∙ To the left we see three columns of data. These are representations of the same numbers 0-15 in
different ways.
o In the middle is the decimal value.
o On the left is positional notation binary
o On the right is Gray code.
 ∙ You will notice that, on the right, each adjacent row is different from it's neighbours by no more
than one bit.
∙ The term Gray code is often used to refer to a "reflected" code, or more specifically still, the binary
reflected Gray code.
10.1 Self-complementary Code
• A code is said to be self-complementary if the code for 9’s complement of N i.e. 9-N can be obtained by
interchanging all 0s and 1s.
• Decimal 9 is the complement of code for 0, 8 for 1, 7 for 2 and so on.
• For a code to be self complementing, the sum of all its weights must be 9. digit.8421 and 5421 codes are
not self complementing codes whereas 5211,2421,3321, 4321 are self complementing. • In general, a code
is self-complementary if we produce a code by taking the first complement of the digit which is same as
9’s complement of the number.
10.2 Reflective code
∙ Imaged about the centre entries with one bit changed
∙ Example ï 9ís complement of a reflected BCD code word is formed by changing only one of its bits ∙
In the Gray code example shown below, the MSB bit alone is changing and the remaining bits is
reflected mirror image about the centre. For clarity, the MSB is removed.
∙ Gray code Reflected property of Gray code

Binary-to-Gray code conversion

∙ The MSB in the Gray code is the same as corresponding MSB in the binary number. ∙ Going from
left to right, add each adjacent pair of binary code bits to get the next Gray code bit. ∙ Discard
carries.
Problem: Convert 10110 to gray code

Gray-to-Binary Conversion
∙ The MSB in the binary code is the same as the corresponding bit in the Gray code. ∙
Add each binary code bit generated to the Gray code bit in the next adjacent position. ∙
Discard carries.
Problem: Convert the Gray code word 11011 to binary
11. Binary-Coded Decimal Code
Although the binary number system is the most natural system for a computer because it is readily
represented in today’s electronic technology, most people are more accustomed to the decimal system. One
way to resolve this difference is to convert decimal numbers to binary, perform all arithmetic calculations in
binary, and then convert the binary results back to decimal. This method requires that we store decimal
numbers in the computer so that they can be converted to binary. Since the computer can accept only binary
values, we must represent the decimal digits by means of a code that contains 1’s and 0’s. It is also possible
to perform the arithmetic operations directly on decimal numbers when they are stored in the computer in
coded form.
A binary code will have some unassigned bit combinations if the number of elements in the set is
not a multiple power of 2. The 10 decimal digits form such a set. A binary code that distinguishes among
10 elements must contain at least four bits, but 6 out of the 16 possible combinations remain unassigned.
Different binary codes can be obtained by arranging four bits into 10 distinct combinations. This scheme is
called binary-coded decimal and is commonly referred to as BCD.
A number with k decimal digits will require 4k bits in BCD. Decimal 396 is represented in BCD
with 12 bits as 0011 1001 0110, with each group of 4 bits representing one decimal digit. A decimal
number in BCD is the same as its equivalent binary number only when the number is between 0 and 9. A
BCD number greater than 10 looks different from its equivalent binary number, even though both contain
1’s and 0’s. Note that the BCD code is not self‐complementing. Moreover, the binary combinations 1010
through 1111 are not used and have no meaning in BCD. Consider decimal 185 and its corresponding value
in BCD and binary:
(185)10 = (0001 1000 0101) BCD = (10111001)2

Table 1
In multi digit BCD coding

11.1 BCD addition:

The addition of two BCD numbers can be best understood by considering the three cases that occur
when two BCD digits are added.
Sum equals 9 or less with carry 0
Let us consider additions of 3 and 6 in BCD.
Sum greater than 9 with carry 0
Let us consider addition of 6 and 8 in BCD
The sum 1110 is an invalid BCD number. This has occurred because the sum of the two digits exceeds 9.
Whenever this occurs this occurs the sum has to be corrected by the addition of six (1110) in the invalid
BCD number, as shown below

Sum equals 9 or less with carry 1

Let us consider addition of 8 and 9 in BCD

In this case, result (001 0001) is valid BCD number, but it is incorrect. To get the correct BCD result
correction factor of 6 has to be added to the least significant digit sum, as shown.

BCD addition procedure

1. Add two BCD numbers using ordinary binary addition.
2. If four bit sum is equal to or less than 9, no correction is needed. The sum is in proper BCD form.
3. If the four bit sum is greater than 9 or if a carry is generated from the four-bit sum, the sum is
invalid.
4. To correct the invalid sum, add 01102 to the four-bit sum. If a carry results from this addition, add it
to the next higher-order BCD digit.
 [Link] codes
Alphanumeric codes are sometimes called character codes due to their certain properties. Now
these codes are basically binary codes. We can write alphanumeric data, including data, letters of the
alphabet, numbers, mathematical symbols and punctuation marks by this code which can be easily
understandable and can be processed by the computers. Input output devices such as keyboards, monitors,
mouse can be interfaced using these codes. 12-bit Hollerith code is the better known and perhaps the first
effective code in the days of evolving computers in early days. During this period punch cards were used as
the inputting and outputting data. But nowadays these codes are termed obsolete as many other modern
codes have evolved. The most common alphanumeric codes used these days are ASCII code, EBCDIC
code and Unicode.

12.1 ASCII Character Code

Many applications of digital computers require the handling not only of numbers, but also of other
characters or symbols, such as the letters of the alphabet. For instance, consider a high‐tech company with
thousands of employees. To represent the names and other pertinent information, it is necessary to
formulate a binary code for the letters of the alphabet. In addition, the same binary code must represent
numerals and special characters (such as $). An alphanumeric character set is a set of elements that
includes the 10 decimal digits, the 26 letters of the alphabet, and a number of special characters. Such a set
contains between 36 and 64 elements if only capital letters are included, or between 64 and 128 elements if
both uppercase and lowercase letters are included. In the first case, we need a binary code of six bits, and in
the second, we need a binary code of seven bits. The standard binary code for the alphanumeric characters
is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), which uses seven bits to code
128 characters, as shown in Table below. The seven bits of the code are designated by b1 through b7, with
b7 the most significant bit. The letter A, for example, is represented in ASCII as 1000001 (column 100, row
0001). The ASCII code also contains 94 graphic characters that can be printed and 34 nonprinting
characters used for various control functions.
The graphic characters consist of the 26 uppercase letters (A through Z), the 26 lowercase letters (a
through z), the 10 numerals (0 through 9), and 32 special printable characters, such as %, *, and
$.characters. Format effectors are characters that control the layout of printing. They include the familiar
word processor and typewriter controls such as backspace (BS), horizontal tabulation (HT), and carriage
return (CR). Information separators are used to separate the data into divisions such as paragraphs and
pages. They include characters such as record separator (RS) and file separator (FS). The
communication‐control characters are useful during the transmission of text between remote devices so that
it can be distinguished from other messages using the same communication channel before it and after it.
Examples of communication‐control characters are STX (start of text) and ETX (end of text), which are
used to frame a text message transmitted through a communication channel.
ASCII is a seven‐bit code, but most computers manipulate an eight‐bit quantity as a single unit
called a byte. Therefore, ASCII characters most often are stored one per byte. The extra bit is sometimes
used for other purposes, depending on the application.
For example, some printers recognize eight‐bit ASCII characters with the most significant bit set to
0. An additional 128 eight‐bit characters with the most significant bit set to 1 are used for other symbols,
such as the Greek alphabet or italic type font.

12.2 EBCDIC
The EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. IBM invented this
code to extend the Binary Coded Decimal which existed at that time. All the IBM computers and
peripherals use this code. It is an 8 bit code and therefore can accommodate 256 characters. Below is given
some characters of EBCDIC code to get familiar with it.

13. HAMMING CODE-ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION

Hamming code is a set of error-correction code s that can be used to detect and correct bit errors
that can occur when computer data is moved or stored.
13.1 Error Detecting Codes
Basic approach used for error detection is the use of redundancy, where additional bits are added to
facilitate detection and correction of errors. Popular techniques are: • Simple Parity check • Two
dimensional Parity check • Checksum • Cyclic redundancy check
Simple Parity Checking or One-dimension Parity Check The most common and least expensive mechanism
for error- detection is the simple parity check. In this technique, a redundant bit called parity bit, is
appended to every data unit so that the number of 1s in the unit (including the parity becomes even). Blocks
of data from the source are subjected to a check bit or Parity bit generator form, where a parity of 1 is
added to the block if it contains an odd number of 1’s (ON bits) and 0 is added if it contains an even
number of 1’s. At the receiving end the parity bit is computed from the received data bits and compared
with the received parity bit, as shown in Fig 1. This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why
it is called even parity checking. Considering a 4-bit word, different combinations of the data words and the
corresponding code words are given in Table 1. Note that for the sake of simplicity, we are discussing here
the even-parity checking, where the number of 1’s should be an even number. It is also possible to use
odd-parity checking, where the number of 1’s should be odd.
Fig 1) Even parity checking scheme
 Table 1:Possible 4 bit data words and corresponding code words
Two-dimension Parity Check
Performance can be improved by using two-dimensional parity check, which organizes the block of bits in
the form of a table. Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is equivalent to a simple parity
check bit. Parity check bits are also calculated for all columns then both are sent along with the data. At the
receiving end these are compared with the parity bitcalculated on the received data. This is illustrated in
Fig. 2. Performance Two- Dimension Parity Checking increases the likelihood of detecting burst errors. As
we have shown in Fig. 2, that a 2-D Parity check of n bits can detect a burst error of n bits. A burst error of
more than n bits is also detected by 2-D Parity check with a highprobability. There is, however, one pattern
of error that remains elusive. If two bits in one data unit are damaged and two bits in exactly same position
in another data unit are also damaged, the 2-D Parity check checker will not detect an error. For example, if
two data units: 11001100 and 10101100. If first and second from last bits in each of them is changed,
making the data units as 01001110 and 00101110, the error cannot be detected by 2-D Parity check.
Fig 2) Two dimension parity checking
Example of Hamming Code Generation
Suppose a binary data 1001101 is to be transmitted. To implement hamming code for this, following steps
are used:
1. Calculating the number of redundancy bits required. Since number of data bits is 7, the value of r is
calculated as
2r > m + r + 1
24 > 7 + 4 + 1
Therefore no. of redundancy bits = 4
2. Determining the positions of various data bits and redundancy bits. The various r bits are placed at the
position that corresponds to the power of 2 i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8

4. Thus data 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 with be transmitted.

13.1 Error Detection & Correction
Considering a case of above discussed example, if bit number 7 has been changed from 1 to [Link] data will
be erroneous.
Data sent: 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
Data received: 1 00 1 0 1 00 1 0 1 (seventh bit changed)
The receive takes the transmission and recalculates four new VRCs using the same set of bits used by
sender plus the relevant parity (r) bit for each set as shown in fig.
Then it assembles the new parity values into a binary number in order of r position (r8, r4, r2, r1). In this
example, this step gives us the binary number 0111. This corresponds to decimal 7. Therefore bit number 7
contains an error. To correct this error, bit 7 is reversed from 0 to 1.

References :
1. Moris Mano, “Digital Computer Fundamentals” TMH 3rd Edition
2. [Link]
3. [Link]
4. HAMMING, R. →. “Error Detecting and Error Correcting Codes.” Bell System Tech. Jour., 29
(1950): 147–160.
5. A.P GODSE,[Link] .”Digital Systems”.Technical [Link].
6. [Link]
7. [Link]
contents/IIScBANG/Digital%20Systems/Digital%[Link]
8. Digital Logic Circuits by [Link] [Link]