COMPLETE REVISION NOTES

Particle Physics | Quantum Physics | Nuclear Physics

Covers specification points 12.2.1 - 12.2.3

Formulae | Definitions | Worked Examples | Examiner Tips

HOW TO USE THESE NOTES

Formula boxes (blue border) = key equations. Learn which are given vs memorised.
Green boxes = worked examples with full substitution and units.
Orange boxes = examiner tips - read these carefully, they win you marks.
Red boxes = common misconceptions that cost students marks every year.
Tables = summary data you should be able to recall quickly.
 PART A: PARTICLE PHYSICS
A1. Millikan's Oil Drop Experiment
Purpose: To measure the charge on an electron and show that charge is quantised (comes in discrete multiples of
e = 1.6 x 10-19 C).

Method: Charged oil drops are suspended between two horizontal parallel plates. The electric field between the
plates is adjusted until the electrostatic force on a drop exactly balances its weight, so the drop is stationary.

At balance: Electric force = Weight

qE = mg so q = mg / E

Key variables: q = charge on the drop (C), E = electric field strength (V/m), m = mass of drop (kg), g = 9.81 m s-2.

Key result: Every measured charge was an integer multiple of 1.6 x 10-19 C. This proves charge is quantised - you
cannot have a fraction of e.

EXAMINER'S TIP: If asked 'what does Millikan's experiment show?', always state TWO things: (1) charge is
quantised, and (2) the smallest unit of charge is e = 1.6 x 10-19 C.

A2. Deflection of Charged Particles in Fields

In a uniform electric field (between parallel plates):
- The charged particle experiences a constant force perpendicular to the plates (F = qE).
- If entering parallel to the plates, the path is parabolic (like projectile motion).
- Positive charges deflect towards the negative plate; negative charges towards the positive plate.
- The deflection depends on charge, mass, speed, and field strength.

In a uniform magnetic field:

- The force is always perpendicular to the velocity (F = Bqv).
- The path is circular (constant speed, changing direction).
- Use Fleming's left-hand rule: thuMb = Motion, First finger = Field, seCond finger = Current (direction of positive
charge flow).
- For negative charges (electrons), reverse the direction of conventional current.

Electric force: F = qE (E in V/m or N/C)

Magnetic force: F = Bqv (B in T, v in m/s)

COMMON MISCONCEPTION: Students often forget that neutral particles are NOT deflected by either field. Also,
the magnetic force does NO work on the particle - it only changes direction, not speed.

A3. Acceleration of Charged Particles

Electric fields accelerate charges. A charge q accelerated through a potential difference V gains kinetic energy:

eV = 1/2 mv2

This comes from W = qV (work done = charge x p.d.). For an electron, q = e = 1.6 x 10-19 C.
Magnetic fields do NOT accelerate charges (no change in speed). They only change the direction of motion.

Find the speed of an electron accelerated through 5000 V

eV = 1/2 mv2
v = sqrt(2eV / m)
v = sqrt(2 x 1.6x10-19 x 5000 / 9.11x10-31)
v = sqrt(1.6x10-15 / 9.11x10-31)
v = sqrt(1.756x1015)
v = 4.19 x 107 m s-1

EXAMINER'S TIP: Always check whether the speed is a significant fraction of c (3 x 108 m/s). If v > 0.1c, the
question may expect you to note that relativistic effects become important.

A4. Specific Charge (e/m) of the Electron

Specific charge = charge-to-mass ratio = e/m. For an electron, e/m = 1.76 x 1011 C kg-1.

Method (electron deflection in magnetic field): Electrons are accelerated through a known p.d. V, then enter a
uniform magnetic field B where they follow a circular path of radius r.

Equate magnetic force to centripetal force:

Bev = mv2/r so e/m = v/(Br)

Combined with eV = 1/2 mv2, this gives: e/m = 2V / (B2r2)

A5. The Quark Model and Classification of Particles
Key principle: Protons and neutrons are NOT fundamental - they are made of quarks. Electrons and neutrinos
ARE fundamental (leptons).

Quarks

Quark Symbol Charge (e) Baryon No. Strangeness

Up u +2/3 +1/3 0

Down d -1/3 +1/3 0

Strange s -1/3 +1/3 -1

Anti-up u-bar -2/3 -1/3 0

Anti-down d-bar +1/3 -1/3 0

Anti-strange s-bar +1/3 -1/3 +1

Hadron Classification

Type Made of Examples Baryon Number

Baryon 3 quarks (qqq) Proton (uud), Neutron (udd) B = +1

Anti-baryon 3 antiquarks Antiproton (u-bar u-bar d-bar) B = -1

Meson quark + antiquark (q + Pion, Kaon B=0

q-bar)

Proton = uud Charge check: +2/3 + 2/3 + (-1/3) = +1 ✓

Neutron = udd Charge check: +2/3 + (-1/3) + (-1/3) = 0 ✓

Leptons
Leptons are fundamental particles. The ones you need to know:
- Electron (e-) and electron neutrino (ve)
- Each has an antiparticle: positron (e+) and electron antineutrino (v-bare)
- Leptons have a lepton number L = +1 (antileptons L = -1)

Conservation laws in particle interactions:

- Charge is always conserved
- Baryon number is always conserved
- Lepton number is always conserved
- Strangeness is conserved in strong interactions, can change by +/-1 in weak interactions

EXAMINER'S TIP: When asked to check if a reaction is possible, check ALL four conservation laws. Show your
working for each one explicitly - examiners award marks for each law checked.

COMMON MISCONCEPTION: Students mix up 'fundamental' and 'hadron'. Remember: quarks and leptons are
fundamental. Protons and neutrons are hadrons (made of quarks) and are NOT fundamental.

A6. Beta Decay in the Quark Model

Beta-minus decay (B-): A neutron changes into a proton. At the quark level, a down quark changes into an up
quark:
n -> p + e- + v-bare (quark level: d -> u + e- + v-bare)

Beta-plus decay (B+): A proton changes into a neutron. At the quark level, an up quark changes into a down
quark:
p -> n + e+ + ve (quark level: u -> d + e+ + ve)

EXAMINER'S TIP: Always check: does the lepton number balance? In B- decay: LHS = 0, RHS = +1 (electron) +
(-1) (antineutrino) = 0 ✓
 PART B: QUANTUM PHYSICS
B1. The Photon Model of EM Radiation
Photon: A discrete packet (quantum) of electromagnetic energy. Light is emitted and absorbed in photons.

Evidence for particulate nature: The photoelectric effect (see B2) cannot be explained by the wave model.

Energy of a photon: E = hf = hc / lambda

where h = 6.63 x 10-34 J s (Planck's constant), f = frequency (Hz), c = 3.0 x 108 m s-1, lambda = wavelength (m).

Useful conversion: 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J. To convert J to eV, divide by 1.6 x 10-19.

B2. The Photoelectric Effect

KEY DEFINITIONS

Photoelectric effect: The emission of electrons from a metal surface when EM radiation of sufficiently high
frequency is incident on it.
Threshold frequency (f0): The minimum frequency of incident radiation needed to release photoelectrons from a
given metal surface.
Work function (phi): The minimum energy needed to free an electron from the metal surface. phi = hf0.
Photoelectron: An electron emitted from the surface due to the photoelectric effect.

Einstein's photoelectric equation: hf = phi + Ek(max)

Threshold condition: phi = hf0
So: hf = hf0 + 1/2 mv2max

Key explanations you must be able to give:

Why is there a threshold frequency? Each photon delivers energy hf to one electron. If hf < phi, the photon does
not have enough energy to free the electron. No electrons are emitted regardless of intensity.

Why is photoelectric current proportional to intensity? Higher intensity = more photons per second = more
electrons emitted per second = larger current. Each photon still only ejects one electron.

Why is max KE independent of intensity? Each photon gives energy hf to one electron. Increasing intensity
increases the NUMBER of photons, not the energy per photon. Max KE only depends on frequency.

Why does this support the particle model?

- Wave theory predicts energy should accumulate over time, so any frequency should eventually eject electrons.
This does NOT happen.
- Wave theory predicts brighter light should give electrons more energy. This does NOT happen.
- The existence of a threshold frequency and instant emission can only be explained by light arriving as discrete
packets (photons).

COMMON MISCONCEPTION: 'Increasing intensity increases the energy of emitted electrons.' WRONG. Intensity
affects the NUMBER of electrons, not their energy. Only frequency affects max KE.
Light of wavelength 420 nm hits a metal with work function 2.3 eV. Find the max KE of emitted
electrons.

Step 1: Convert work function to Joules:

phi = 2.3 x 1.6x10-19 = 3.68 x 10-19 J
Step 2: Find photon energy:
E = hc / lambda
E = (6.63x10-34 x 3.0x108) / (420x10-9)
E = 4.74 x 10-19 J
Step 3: Apply Einstein's equation:
Ek(max) = hf - phi
Ek(max) = 4.74x10-19 - 3.68x10-19
Ek(max) = 1.06 x 10-19 J (or 0.66 eV)

EXAMINER'S TIP: If a question says 'explain why the photoelectric effect supports the particle nature of light', you
MUST state: (1) existence of threshold frequency, (2) one photon interacts with one electron, (3) wave theory
cannot explain instant emission or threshold frequency. Three points for full marks.

B3. Wave-Particle Duality

Evidence for wave nature of EM radiation: Interference and diffraction patterns (e.g. Young's double slit, single
slit diffraction). These can only be explained by superposition of waves.

Evidence for wave nature of particles: Electron diffraction. When electrons are fired at a thin crystal (e.g.
graphite), a diffraction pattern of concentric rings is observed on a screen. This can only be explained if electrons
behave as waves.

de Broglie wavelength: Every moving particle has an associated wavelength:

lambda = h / p = h / mv

where p = momentum (kg m s-1), m = mass (kg), v = speed (m s-1).

Key point: The faster the particle or the greater its mass, the smaller its de Broglie wavelength. Everyday objects
have wavelengths so tiny that wave effects are undetectable.

Find the de Broglie wavelength of an electron travelling at 2.0 x 106 m/s.

lambda = h / mv
lambda = 6.63x10-34 / (9.11x10-31 x 2.0x106)
lambda = 6.63x10-34 / 1.822x10-24
lambda = 3.64 x 10-10 m (~0.36 nm)
This is similar to atomic spacing in crystals,
which is why electron diffraction is observable.

COMMON MISCONCEPTION: Students say 'only light has wave-particle duality.' WRONG. ALL particles have a
de Broglie wavelength. It is just immeasurably small for macroscopic objects.

B4. Energy Levels and Spectral Lines

Discrete energy levels: Electrons in isolated atoms can only exist at specific, quantised energy levels. They
cannot have energies between these levels.

Ground state: The lowest energy level (n = 1). Electrons normally occupy this.
Excited state: Any energy level above the ground state.
Ionisation: When an electron is removed completely from the atom (energy = 0 by convention).

Energy of emitted/absorbed photon: Delta E = hf

or equivalently: E2 - E1 = hf = hc / lambda

Emission spectrum: When electrons drop from higher to lower energy levels, they emit photons. Each transition
produces a specific frequency, giving bright lines on a dark background.

Absorption spectrum: White light passes through a cool gas. Atoms absorb photons matching the exact energy
gaps between their levels. This produces dark lines on a continuous spectrum.

Why lines (not continuous)? Because energy levels are discrete, only specific photon energies (and thus
frequencies) can be emitted or absorbed.

EXAMINER'S TIP: If asked 'explain how line spectra provide evidence for discrete energy levels', make sure you
state: (1) electrons can only transition between specific energy levels, (2) each transition emits/absorbs a photon
of specific energy, (3) E = hf means specific energies give specific frequencies, hence lines not a continuous
spectrum.

An electron drops from -1.5 eV to -3.4 eV. Find the wavelength of the emitted photon.

Step 1: Energy of photon = difference in levels:

Delta E = -1.5 - (-3.4) = 1.9 eV
Step 2: Convert to Joules:
Delta E = 1.9 x 1.6x10-19 = 3.04 x 10-19 J
Step 3: Use E = hc / lambda, rearrange:
lambda = hc / Delta E
lambda = (6.63x10-34 x 3.0x108) / 3.04x10-19
lambda = 6.54 x 10-7 m = 654 nm (visible red)

B5. Bohr's Postulates and Atomic Stability

The problem: Classical physics predicts that an orbiting electron should continuously radiate energy (because it is
accelerating) and spiral into the nucleus. Atoms should be unstable. But they are not.

Bohr's postulates resolved this:

1. Electrons orbit the nucleus only in specific allowed orbits (stationary states) without radiating energy.
2. An electron can transition between orbits by emitting or absorbing a photon of energy exactly equal to the
energy difference: Delta E = hf.
3. The angular momentum of the electron is quantised: L = mvr = nh/(2 pi), where n = 1, 2, 3...

B6. Band Theory (Conductors, Insulators, Semiconductors)

When atoms come together in a solid, their discrete energy levels broaden into bands.

Term Definition

Valence band The highest energy band that is normally occupied by electrons.
Conduction band The next band above the valence band. Electrons here are free to conduct.

Band gap The energy gap between the valence and conduction bands. No electron states exist in
this gap.

Material Band Gap Behaviour

Conductor (metal) No gap / bands overlap Electrons freely move into conduction band. Good
conduction.

Insulator Very large gap (several eV) Electrons cannot jump to conduction band at normal
temperatures.

Semiconductor Small gap (~1 eV) At room temperature, some electrons can cross the gap.
Conductivity increases with temperature.
 PART C: NUCLEAR PHYSICS
C1. Rutherford Alpha-Particle Scattering
Experiment: Alpha particles were fired at a thin gold foil. Most passed straight through, some deflected at small
angles, and very few bounced back at large angles (> 90 degrees).

Conclusions:
- Most of the atom is empty space (most alphas pass through).
- The nucleus is very small compared to the atom (few large deflections).
- The nucleus is positively charged (repels positive alpha particles).
- The nucleus contains nearly all the mass of the atom (it can deflect fast-moving alphas backwards).

EXAMINER'S TIP: A common 6-mark question: 'Describe the experiment and explain what the observations tell
us about the atom.' For full marks, describe the setup AND link each observation to a conclusion about the
nucleus.

C2. The Nuclear Atom

Particle Location Charge Relative Mass
-19
Proton Nucleus +1e (+1.6x10 C) 1 u (1.67x10-27 kg)

Neutron Nucleus 0 1u
-19
Electron Orbits / energy levels -1e (-1.6x10 C) ~1/1836 u (9.11x10-31 kg)

A
Nuclide notation: X where A = nucleon number (mass number), Z = proton number (atomic number).
Z
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element (same Z) with different numbers of neutrons (different A).

C3. Nuclear Equations and Conservation Laws

In all nuclear processes, the following are conserved:
- Nucleon number (A) - total number of protons + neutrons
- Proton number (Z) - which also means charge is conserved
- Mass-energy (E = mc2)

Example nuclear equations:

A
Alpha decay: X -> A-4Z-2Y + 42He
Z
A
Beta-minus: X -> AZ+1Y + e- + v-bare
Z
A
Beta-plus: X -> AZ-1Y + e+ + ve
Z

EXAMINER'S TIP: Always check your nuclear equations balance: total A on left = total A on right, total Z on left =
total Z on right. Show this check explicitly for full marks.

C4. Radioactive Decay - Nature and Properties

Radioactive decay is:
- Spontaneous: Not affected by external conditions (temperature, pressure, chemical bonding).
- Random: Cannot predict which nucleus will decay next, or when. Can only give probabilities.
- Evidence of randomness: Fluctuations in count rate measurements, even with the same source.

Radiation Nature Charge Penetration Ionising Stopped by

Power

Alpha (a) 2p + 2n (He nucleus) +2e Low (few cm air) Strong Paper / skin

Beta-minus Electron -1e Medium (~1 m air) Medium Few mm aluminium

(B-)

Gamma (y) EM radiation (photon) 0 High (never fully) Weak Thick lead / concrete

C5. Mass-Energy Equivalence

E = mc2

where E = energy (J), m = mass (kg), c = 3.0 x 108 m s-1.

Mass defect (Delta m): The difference between the total mass of the individual nucleons and the actual mass of
the nucleus. The nucleus has LESS mass than its parts.

Binding energy (BE): The energy required to completely separate a nucleus into individual protons and neutrons.
Equivalent to the mass defect: BE = Delta m x c2.

Binding energy per nucleon: BE / A. This is the key quantity for comparing nuclear stability.
- Higher BE per nucleon = more stable nucleus.
- Iron-56 has the highest BE per nucleon (~8.8 MeV) - it is the most stable nucleus.

A nucleus has mass defect 0.528 u. Find its binding energy in MeV.

Step 1: Convert mass defect to kg:

Delta m = 0.528 x 1.66x10-27 = 8.765x10-28 kg
Step 2: Apply E = mc2:
E = 8.765x10-28 x (3.0x108)2
E = 7.888x10-11 J
Step 3: Convert to MeV:
E = 7.888x10-11 / 1.6x10-13
E = 493 MeV
Shortcut: 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2
E = 0.528 x 931.5 = 491.8 MeV (same answer)

EXAMINER'S TIP: The shortcut 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2 saves time and avoids rounding errors. Use it unless the
question specifically asks for a calculation in SI units. This is often given in the data booklet.

C6. Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Nuclear fission: A heavy nucleus splits into two (or more) lighter nuclei, releasing energy and usually neutrons.
- The products have HIGHER binding energy per nucleon than the parent.
- The increase in total binding energy is released as kinetic energy of the products.
- Example: Uranium-235 + neutron -> fragments + 2-3 neutrons + energy.

Nuclear fusion: Two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy.
- The product has HIGHER binding energy per nucleon than the reactants.
- Fusion requires extremely high temperatures to overcome electrostatic repulsion between nuclei.
- Example: Hydrogen isotopes fusing in stars.

Explaining energy release using BE per nucleon:

- Both fission and fusion move nuclei TOWARDS the peak of the BE per nucleon curve (around Fe-56).
- Energy released = total BE of products - total BE of reactants.
- If this value is positive, the reaction releases energy.

COMMON MISCONCEPTION: 'Fusion releases energy because mass is created.' WRONG. In both fission and
fusion, the products have LESS total mass than the reactants. The 'missing' mass has been converted to energy
via E = mc2.

C7. Radioactive Decay - Exponential Law

KEY DEFINITIONS

Activity (A): The number of nuclei decaying per second. Unit: becquerel (Bq), where 1 Bq = 1 decay/s.
Decay constant (lambda): The probability that a given nucleus will decay per unit time. Unit: s-1.
Half-life (t1/2): The time taken for the number of undecayed nuclei (or the activity) to halve.

Activity: A = lambda N
Exponential decay: N = N0 e-lambda t
Also: A = A0 e-lambda t
Half-life: t1/2 = ln(2) / lambda = 0.693 / lambda

where N = number of undecayed nuclei, N0 = initial number, A = activity, A0 = initial activity, lambda = decay
constant, t = time.

Why exponential? Each nucleus has the same constant probability of decaying in each time interval. As fewer
nuclei remain, fewer decay per second, but the probability per nucleus stays the same.

A sample has initial activity 6400 Bq and half-life 8.0 hours. Find the activity after 24 hours.

Method 1: Counting half-lives

24 hours = 3 half-lives
After 1 t1/2: 6400 / 2 = 3200 Bq
After 2 t1/2: 3200 / 2 = 1600 Bq
After 3 t1/2: 1600 / 2 = 800 Bq
Method 2: Using the formula
lambda = ln(2) / t1/2 = 0.693 / (8.0 x 3600) = 2.41x10-5 s-1
A = A0 e-lambda t
-5
A = 6400 x e-(2.41x10 x 86400)

A = 6400 x e-2.079 = 6400 x 0.125 = 800 Bq

A source has a decay constant of 3.5 x 10-4 s-1. It currently contains 2.0 x 1010 undecayed atoms.
Find: (a) the activity, (b) the half-life.

(a) Activity:
A = lambda N
A = 3.5x10-4 x 2.0x1010
A = 7.0 x 106 Bq (7.0 MBq)
(b) Half-life:
t1/2 = ln(2) / lambda
t1/2 = 0.693 / 3.5x10-4
t1/2 = 1980 s = 33 minutes

EXAMINER'S TIP: When a question gives time in hours but lambda in s-1, you MUST convert to the same units
before substituting. This is the #1 source of lost marks in decay calculations. Always check: are my time units
consistent?

COMMON MISCONCEPTION: 'After one half-life, all the nuclei have decayed.' WRONG. After one half-life, HALF
remain. After two, a quarter remains. Theoretically the number never reaches zero.
 QUICK-REFERENCE FORMULA SHEET
Particle Physics

Formula Meaning Memorise?

F = qE Force on charge in electric field Yes

F = Bqv Force on moving charge in magnetic field Yes

eV = 1/2 mv2 KE gained by charge accelerated through p.d. Yes

e/m = 2V / (B2r2) Specific charge from deflection experiment Derive it

Quantum Physics

Formula Meaning Memorise?

E = hf = hc/lambda Photon energy Yes

hf = phi + Ek(max) Einstein's photoelectric equation Yes

phi = hf0 Work function and threshold frequency Yes

lambda = h / mv de Broglie wavelength Yes

Delta E = hf Energy level transitions Yes

Nuclear Physics

Formula Meaning Memorise?

E = mc2 Mass-energy equivalence Yes

BE = Delta m x c2 Binding energy from mass defect Derive

A = lambda N Activity = decay const x number of nuclei Yes

N = N0 e-lambda t Exponential decay law Yes

t1/2 = ln(2) / lambda Half-life and decay constant Yes

1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2 Atomic mass unit energy equivalent Know it

Constants to Know

Constant Symbol Value

Planck's constant h 6.63 x 10-34 J s

Speed of light c 3.00 x 108 m s-1

Electron charge e 1.60 x 10-19 C

Electron mass me 9.11 x 10-31 kg

Proton mass mp 1.67 x 10-27 kg

Atomic mass unit u 1.66 x 10-27 kg

1 eV in Joules eV 1.60 x 10-19 J

EXAMINER'S TIP: In the last hour before the exam: re-read the orange boxes (examiner tips), practise one
worked example from each section without looking at the solution, and review the quark table + conservation
laws. Good luck!