Sogang University

General Physics: Lecture Note

Updated in March 20, 2026
Lecturer: Junho Hong

Contents
I Mechanics 1
1 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Motion Along a Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5 Force and Motion I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6 Force and Motion II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7 Kinetic Energy and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

This lecture note is mainly based on [1].

I Mechanics
1 Measurement
Physics describes natural phenomena in terms of mathematics.
→ Hence physical quantities – length, time, mass, etc – must be ‘measured’ properly.
Basic concepts for measurement

• Unit: the unique name assigned to the measure of a physical quantity

e.g. meter – length / second,year – time / kilogram,ton – mass

• Base quantities: physical quantities whose units are independent

e.g. time, length, mass, electric current, etc. (speed = length / time → derived quantities)
Units of base/derived quantities = base/derived units.

International System of Units (SI)

1
 • SI base quantities:

length, time, mass, electric current, temperature, amount of substance, luminous intensity

• SI base units:
meter (m) , second (s) , kilogram (kg) , ampere (A) ,
kelvin (K) , mol (mol) , candela (cd) .

Examples of SI derived units: Joule (J) = kg · m2 · s→2 , Watt (W ) = kg · m2 · s→3 , etc.

• ‘MKS(meter, kilogram, second)’ in SI

– Meter
The length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during 1
299792458
s.
– Kilogram
The mass of a cylinder of platinum and iridium stored in France + copies.
– Second
The time taken by 9192631770 oscillations of the light emitted by a Cesium-133 atom.

Writing of units

• Changing units (employing a conversion factor):

1000m 60s
1.3km = 1.3km ↑ = 1300m , 2min = 2min ↑ = 120s .
1km 1min

• Scientific notation (employing powers of 10):

3560000m = 3.56 ↑ 106 m , 0.002754kg = 2.754 ↑ 10→3 kg .

• Significant figures (meaningful digits) in scientific notation:

4 for 3.000 ↑ 103 m , 2 for 3.0 ↑ 103 m .

2 Motion Along a Straight Line

Kinematics
What is Kinematics? → Study of motion without consideration of its origin
Kinematics of interest in this section

• Motion along a straight line (1-dimensional)

2
 • Motion of a point particle or a point-like object
(point-like = each part of an object travels in the same direction at the same rate)

Position & displacement & distance (length unit)

• Position: measured location of a particle relative to a reference point.

Note. Position has a sign.

• Displacement: change in position of a particle.

!x = (final position) ↓ (initial position) = x2 ↓ x1 .

Note. Displacement is a ‘vector’ (having both magnitude & direction):

e.g. !x = ↓4m has magnitude 4m and the negative direction.

• Distance: the length of the path traveled by a particle.

e.g. Distance for the movement x = 1m → ↓2m → 3m is given by 8m.
Note. Distance has magnitude only (not a vector).

[Lecture 1 to here]

Velocity & Speed ( length

time
unit)

• Average velocity:
displacement !x
vavg = =
the time interval in which the displacement occurred !t
Note. Velocity is a vector.
In x(t) plot, vavg = slope of the straight line connecting two points:

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 • Average speed:
total distance traveled by a particle
savg =
the time interval in which the traveling occurred
Note. Speed is not a vector and always positive (or zero).

e.g. (Average) Velocity vs Speed

For the movement x = 3m → ↓3m in 2s,
(↓3m) ↓ (3m) |(↓3m) ↓ (3m)|
vavg = = ↓3m/s , savg = = 3m/s .
2s 2s

• (Instantaneous) velocity:
!x dx
v = lim vavg = lim = .
!t↑0 !t↑0 !t dt
Note. Defined at a single moment in time → Slope of the x ↓ t graph at an instant.
• (Instantaneous) speed = magnitude of (instantaneous) velocity

length
Acceleration ( (time) 2 unit)

• Average acceleration:
change in velocity !v
aavg = = .
the time interval in which the change occurred !t
Note. Acceleration is a vector.
• (Instantaneous) acceleration:
!v dv d2 x
a = lim = = 2 .
!t↑0 !t dt dt

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Relations between position & velocity & acceleration
Displacement → Velocity → Acceleration via differentiation w.r.t. time

Acceleration → Velocity → Displacement via the fundamental theorem of calculus

• Velocity from acceleration integral

! t1
v(t1 ) ↓ v(t0 ) = a(t) dt .
t0

• Displacement from velocity integral

! t1
x(t1 ) ↓ x(t0 ) = v(t) dt .
t0

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Constant acceleration

• Relation between a(t) = a and v(t):

dv(t)
a= → v(t) = C + at = v(0) + at = v0 + at .
dt
v(t) is a linear function in t.

• Relation between a and x(t):

dx(t) 1 1
v(t) = v0 + at = → x(t) = C + v0 t + at2 = x0 + v0 t + at2 .
dt 2 2
x(t) is a quadratic polynomial in t.

• Other useful relations:

" #
1 2
v = (v0 + at) = + 2a v0 t + at = v02 + 2a(x ↓ x0 ) ,
2 2
v02 [no t]
2
1 1 1 (I.1)
x = x0 + v0 t + (v0 + at)t = x0 + (v0 + v)t , [no a]
2 2 2
1 2 1
x = x0 + (v ↓ at)t + at = x0 + vt ↓ at2 . [no v0 ]
2 2

e.g. Free-fall acceleration

• The rate at which an object accelerates downward in the absence of air resistance.

• Downward, g = 9.8m/s2 .

3 Vectors
Vector vs Scalar

• Vector: a mathematical object with both magnitude & direction

e.g. position, velocity, acceleration, etc.

• Scalar: a mathematical object with magnitude only

e.g. time(?!), temperature, energy(?!), mass, etc

Notation for a vector with magnitude b:

ωb .

Graphical form of vectors

6
Note. Vectors are independent of the origin & traveling paths (consider a displacement).

Component form of vectors

• Component of a vector = the projection of a vector on an axis

• Components of a 2d vector

ωa = (ax , ay )

Polar representation of 2d vector components (a: magnitude & ε: angle from x-axis to ωa):

ax = a cos ε , ay = a sin ε .

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 Inverse representation of 2d vector magnitude & polar-angle:
$ ay
a = a2x + a2y , tan ε = .
ax
Comments
– Components fully determine a vector.
– Angles are measured in degrees or radians (“rad” is omitted frequently):
2ϑ rad 2ϑ
360↓ = 2ϑ rad → e.g. 40↓ = 40↓ = rad .
360↓ 9
• Components of a 3d vector1

ωa = (ax , ay , az ) = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂

Note. {î, ĵ, k̂} are called directional unit vectors.

Comments
– Unit vectors = Vectors with magnitude 1, labeled by “hat”
– x ↓ y ↓ z coordinates are right-handed.
• Vectors are independent of the coordinate system!
But their components depend on the coordinate system.

1
Alternative spherical components: (a, ω, ε)

8
 ωa = ax î + ay ĵ = a↔x î↔ + a↔y ĵ ↔ while ax ↔= a↔x & ay ↔= a↔y

[Lecture 2 to here]

Addition of vectors
ωs = ωa + ωb .
Properties

• Commutative:
ωa + ωb = ωb + ωa .

• Associative:
ωa + (ωb + ωc) = (ωa + ωb) + ωc .

• Inverse element of ωa:

ωa + (↓ωa) = 0 .

• Definition of subtraction:
dω = ωa ↓ ωb ↗ ωa + (↓ωb) .

Presentation of vector addition ωs = ωa + ωb:

• Graphical form:

• Component form:
ωs = (sx , sy , sz ) s x = ax + b x ,
ωa = (ax , ay , az ) → s y = ay + b y ,
ωb = (bx , by , bz ) s z = az + b z .

Multiplications of vectors

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• Scalar multiplication:

multiplying a vector ωa by a scalar c , cωa = (cax , cay , caz ) .

• Dot (scalar) product:

ωa · ωb = ab cos ϖ (ϖ = angle between ωa & ωb) .

Comments

– Dot product yields a scalar.

– Vanishes if ωa ↘ ωb.
– Commutative; ωa · ωb = ωb · ωa.

Component form:

ωa · ωb = (ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂) · (bx î + by ĵ + bz k̂) = ax bx + ay by + az bz .

Graphical form (multiplying the magnitudes after the projection of one to the other):

• Cross product:

ωa ↑ ωb = ab sin ϖ n̂ (ϖ = angle between ωa & ωb, n̂ ↘ ωa, ωb by the right-hand rule)

Comments:

– Cross product yields a vector.

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 – Direction of n̂ is specified by the right-hand rule

– Vanishes if ωa //ωb (parallel or anti-parallel).

– Non-commutative; ωa ↑ ωb = ↓ωb ↑ ωa ↔= ωb ↑ ωa.

Component form:

ωa ↑ ωb = (ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂) ↑ (bx î + by ĵ + bz k̂)

= (ay bz ↓ az by )(ĵ ↑ k̂) + (az bx ↓ ax bz )(k̂ ↑ î) + (ax by ↓ ay bx )(î ↑ ĵ)
= (ay bz ↓ az by )î + (az bx ↓ ax bz )ĵ + (ax by ↓ ay bx )k̂ .

4 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

Generalize what we have learned in Chapter 2 to 2,3-dimensional spaces!

Position and displacement

• Position vector: ωr = xî + y ĵ + z k̂

e.g. ωr = (↓3m)î + (2m)ĵ + (5m)k̂:

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 • Displacement vector: !ωr = ωr1 ↓ωr2 = (x1 ↓x2 )î+(y1 ↓y2 )ĵ+(z1 ↓z2 )k̂ = !xî+!y ĵ+!z k̂

Velocity
!y
• Average velocity: ωvavg = !ω
r
!t
= !x
!t
î + !t
ĵ + !z
!t
k̂.
dy
• (Instantaneous) velocity: ωv = lim!t↑0 !ω
r
!t
= dω
r
dt
= dx
dt
î + dt
ĵ + dz
dt
k̂ = vx î + vy ĵ + vz k̂

Note. Velocity is a tangent vector to the ωr(t) curve.

e.g. Circular motion

Velocity of a particle traveling clockwise/anti-clockwise is ωv = (2m/s)î + (↓2m/s)ĵ

→ Position of this particle in the following circle?

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Acceleration

• Average acceleration: ωaavg = !ωv

!t

d2 ω d2 x d2 y d2 z
• (Instantaneous) acceleration: ωa = dωv
dt
= dt2
r
= dt2
î + dt2
ĵ + dt2
k̂ = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂

e.g. Position, velocity, and acceleration

ωr = (4t3 ↓2t)î+(3↓t2 )ĵ+(7t)k̂ → ωv = (12t2 ↓2)î+(↓2t)ĵ+7k̂ → ωa = (24t)î+(↓2)ĵ

Case I. Projectile motion

Projectile motion = a particle motion in the x ↓ y plane

• with some initial velocity ωv0 = v0x î + v0y ĵ = v0 (cos ε0 î + sin ε0 ĵ),

• with a free-fall acceleration ωa = ay ĵ = ↓g ĵ.

Kinematics (horizontal & vertical motions are independent!)

• Horizontal motion (constant vx ):

dx
vx = = v0x → x = x0 + v0x t = x0 + (v0 cos ε0 )t .
dt

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 • Vertical motion (constant ay ):
dvy dy
ay = = a0y = ↓g → vy = = v0y ↓ gt = v0 sin ε0 ↓ gt
dt dt
1
→ y = y0 + (v0 sin ε0 )t ↓ gt2 .
2
Useful relation: vy2 ↓ v0y
2
= (v0y ↓ gt)2 ↓ v0y
2
= ↓2v0y gt + g 2 t2 = ↓2g(y ↓ y0 )

Remarks
• Trajectory (y as a function of x): parabola
1
y ↓ y0 = (v0 sin ε0 )t ↓ gt2
2
" #2
x ↓ x0 1 x ↓ x0
= (v0 sin ε0 ) ↓ g
v0 cos ε0 2 v0 cos ε0
g(x ↓ x0 )2
= (tan ε0 )(x ↓ x0 ) ↓
2(v0 cos ε0 )2

[Lecture 3 to here]
• Maximum height
" #2
1 2 1 v0 sin ε0 v 2 sin2 ε0 v 2 sin2 ε0
y ↓ y0 = (v0 sin ε0 )t ↓ gt = ↓ g t ↓ + 0 ≃ 0
2 2 g 2g 2g
Maximum height at t = v0 sin ε0
g

• Horizontal range (traveling distance in x by the time it returns to the initial height)
% &
1 2 2v0 sin ε0
i) Time: y = y0 + (v0 sin ε0 )t ↓ gt = y0 → t ⇐ 0, ,
2 g
2v0 sin ε0 v 2 sin 2ε0 v2 ϑ
ii) Distance: x ↓ x0 = (v0 cos ε0 ) = 0 ≃ 0 (“=” at ε0 = )
g g g 4
Note. Air resistance reduces both height & horizontal range.

e.g. Ski jump

A ski jumper leaves the slope (angle ϖ) horizontally at speed v0 .
How long does it take for the jumper to land?
1
1 |y(T )| gT 2 2v0 tan ϖ
x = v0 t & y = ↓ gt2 → tan ϖ = = 2 → T =
2 |x(T )| v0 T g

Case II. Uniform circular motion

Uniform circular motion = a particle motion in 2d

14
 • along a circle,

• at a constant speed.

Kinematics

• Velocity has constant magnitude & changing direction (always tangential):

ωr = r(cos εî + sin εĵ) (r is constant) ,

" #
dωr dε dε
ωv = =r ↓ sin εî + cos εĵ
dt dt dt
dε v
= v(↓ sin εî + cos εĵ) → = is constant .
dt r
Note. Constant speed ↔= constant velocity!

• Period of revolution (time for one rotation): T = 2ϑr

v
.

• Acceleration has constant magnitude & changing direction (always radially inward):
" #
dωv dε dε v2 v2
ωa = =v ↓ cos εî ↓ sin εĵ = ↓ (cos εî + sin εĵ) = ↓ r̂ .
dt dt dt r r

Note. Called a centripetal acceleration.

Case III. Relative motion

15
Measurement in general depends on a reference frame.

ωrP A = Position vector of P measured in the reference frame A

= ‘Position of P ↓ Position of (the origin of) A’ in any reference frame.

For two reference frames A and B non-accelerating with respect to each other:

• Positions in different frames:

ωrP A = (ωrP ↓ ωrB ) + (ωrB ↓ ωrA ) = ωrP B + ωrBA .

• Velocities in different frames:

ωvP A = ωvP B + ωvBA .

• Acceleration in different frames:

dωvBA
ωaP A = ωaP B + ωaBA = ωaP B since ωaBA = = 0.
dt

5 Force and Motion I

Introduction of force
Force: push or pulling acting on a body that causes acceleration.
Basics
• Forces are vectors: Fω .

• Unit: N = kg · m · s→2 (Newton)

• Net force Fωnet : vector sum of all forces acting on a body.

Effects of forces on bodies → Governed by Newton’s 3 laws of motion (Newtonian mechanics)

Valid under

16
 • Speeds of bodies ⇒ light speed

• Sizes of bodies ⇑ atomic scale

Newton’s 1st law

No net force on a body (Fωnet = 0) ⇓ No acceleration (ωa = 0)

Comments:

• The 1st law is not true in all (reference) frames.

• Reference frames in which the 1st law is valid = Inertial (reference) frames.

e.g. Coriolis force (Earth is a non-inertial frame!)

But in typical laboratory experiments, earth can be approximated as an inertial frame.

Newton’s 2nd law

Net force on a body = Product of the body’s mass & acceleration

Fωnet = mωa

Comments:

• Valid in inertial reference frames defined by the 1st law

• Mass = characteristic of a body relating the force on itself & the resulting acceleration
= resistance of a body to a change in velocity

• Components of the 2nd law are independent of each other.

• Fωnet = 0 does not mean there is no force on a body!

17
e.g. Force, mass, and acceleration

Fωnet = (2î ↓ 8ĵ + 4k̂)N & m = 2kg → ωa = (î ↓ 4ĵ + 2k̂)m/s2 .

Free body diagrams (FBD)

To determine the acceleration of bodies → Draw free body diagrams (FBD)!

1. Draw bodies (typically as dots)

2. Draw forces as arrows whose tails are on the bodies

3. Specify the coordinate system

Note. Include external forces (exerted from the outside) only in the FBD!
Internal forces (between bodies in a system) do not affect ωa → The 3rd law!

[Lecture 4 to here]

Types of forces
1) Gravitational force

• Definition: Attractive force between bodies [Chapter ??].

• Focusing on a gravitational force on a body from the earth, Fωg = mωg = ↓mg ĵ.

• Weight = the magnitude of the net force required to prevent the body from free-falling,
measured by someone on the ground

if no other external forces → W ↓ Fg = may = 0 → W = Fg = mg ↔= mass m

2) Normal force

• Definition: Push-back force on the body from the surface where it is standing.

18
 • FωN ↘ surface where the body is standing.

• Can be computed by requiring a vertical equilibrium: e.g. FωN + Fωg = 0.

3) Friction

• Definition: Force occurring when one object slides (or attempt to slide) over another.

• Always opposite to the direction of (intended) motion.

4) Tension

• Definition: Force along the cord connecting two bodies (or pulling sources).

• Key assumptions

– Massless & fixed-length cord between two bodies

– Direction → always pulling & Magnitude → same on both sides

19
Newton’s 3rd law
'
equal in magnitude
For interacting two bodies (A & B), the forces from each other are
opposite in direction

FωAB = ↓FωBA

e.g.1. Two objects connected by a cord I

1. Draw a FBD for each body.

2. Write down the 2nd law for each body:

i) : T î = M (aî) → T = M a & ii) : (T ↓mg)ĵ = m(↓aĵ) → T ↓mg = ↓ma .

3. Solve them for a:

m
i) ↓ ii) : mg = (M + m)a → a= g.
M +m

20
e.g.2. Two objects connected by a cord II

1. Draw a FBD for each body.

2. Write down the 2nd law for each body:

i) : T ↓ m1 g = m1 a & ii) : N ↓ m2 g cos ε = 0 , m2 g sin ε ↓ T = m2 a .

3. Solve them for a:

m2 sin ε ↓ m1
i) + ii-2) : (m2 sin ε ↓ m1 )g = (m1 + m2 )a → a= g.
m1 + m2
Comments

• Reproduces the result of e.g.1 under ε = 0.

• Threshold angle: sin ε = m1
m2

6 Force and Motion II

Study different types of motion under various forces.

Friction
Applications

• Essential in everyday life: walking, picking, writing, etc.

• Overcoming is also important to remain in motion; e.g. efficiency in engines.

Origin of friction

• Microscopically bumpy surfaces → Friction occurs as contact points slide over each other.

21
 • Greater normal force → More contact → Stronger friction

Two types of friction

• Static friction: the opposing force fωs that prevents an object from moving

– The magnitude fs can take any value between 0 & maximum fs,max .
– fs,max = µs FN , where µs : coefficient of static friction.

• Kinetic friction: the opposing force fωk that acts on an object in motion

– The magnitude fk has a definite value.

– The magnitude = µk FN , where µk : coefficient of kinetic friction.
→ Typically µk < µs

[Lecture 5 to here]

Comments

• Both maximum static friction & kinetic friction are proportional to the normal force.

22
 • Friction coefficients are unitless & determined experimentally.
• Assume µk is velocity independent.

e.g. Angled force applied to a block

The 2nd law for the stationary case (assume cos ε > µs sin ε):
Vertical : FN = mg + F sin ε
→ F cos ε ≃ µs (mg + F sin ε)
Horizontal : F cos ε = fs ≃ µs FN
µs mg
F ≃ .
cos ε ↓ µs sin ε
Q. What if cos ε ≃ µs sin ε...?
A. The block is stationary for any F .
µs mg
The 2nd law for the moving case (cos ε > µs sin ε and F > cos ε→µs sin ε
):

Vertical : FN = mg + F sin ε F (cos ε ↓ µk sin ε)

→ a= ↓ µk g .
Horizontal : F cos ε ↓ fk = F cos ε ↓ µk FN = ma m

Drag force & Terminal speed

Qualitative understanding
• Fluid: anything that can flow such as gas & liquid.
• Drag force: force on an object moving relative to fluid.
→ Opposes the relative motion = Along the direction of the fluid flow relative to the object.

23
Quantitative analysis

• Magnitude of drag force:

1
D(v) = CϱAv 2 .
2
– C: drag coefficient (in general a function of v, here assume it is a constant)
– ϱ: fluid density
– A: area perpendicular to the relative velocity
– v: relative velocity

• The 2nd law for a falling object:

ωa = ↓aĵ → ma = mg ↓D(v) .
()*+
=Fg

Terminal speed vt at drag force = gravitational force:

,
2Fg
0 = mg ↓ D(vt ) → vt = .
CϱA

e.g. Rain drop

Gravitational force on a rain drop:
4
Fg = mg = ϱw V g = ϱw ϑR3 g .
3
Drag force on a rain drop:
1 1
D = Cϱa Av 2 = Cϱa ϑR2 v 2 .
2 2
Terminal speed of a rain drop (C = 0.6):
, , ,
8 3
2Fg ϱw ϑR g 8ϱw Rg
vt = = 3 2
=
Cϱa A Cϱa ϑR 3Cϱa
,
8(1000kg/m3 )(1.5 ↑ 10→3 m)(9.8m/s2 )
⇔ ⇔ 7.303m/s .
3(0.6)(1.225kg/m3 )

Uniform circular motion

Centripetal force

24
 • Uniform circular motion is characterized by a radially-inward centripetal acceleration:

v2
ωa = ↓ r̂ .
r

• Centripetal force = origin of such centripetal acceleration:

2
v
Fω = ↓m r̂ .
r
→ Changes the direction of the body’s velocity without changing its speed!

Examples of centripetal force

• Tension of the string connected to a puck

• Friction for a car rounding a curve

• Gravitational force for a space shuttle orbiting around the earth

e.g.1. Bike on a vertical loop

Assuming a uniform circular motion2 at the top of the loop, centripetal force:

v2
m = FN + mg .
R
Minimum velocity at the top:

v2 -
FN ↖ 0 → m ↖ mg → v↖ gR .
R

e.g.2. A racing car rounding a curve

2
In fact, assuming constant R is enough.

25
Centripetal force & maximum velocity:
, " #
v2 FL
m = fs ≃ µs FN = µs (mg + FL ) → v ≃ µs g + R.
R m

7 Kinetic Energy and Work

Basics of energy
Energy: A quantity assigned to a system, which is required for motion.
Key properties:
• Takes different forms: kinetic energy, potential energy, etc.
→ Can be transferred across various types.
• Conserved in a closed system.
Kinetic energy (KE) & Work; constant force
Kinetic energy of a moving object with mass m and velocity ωv :
1
K = mv 2 .
2
Comments:
• Greater as m ↙ or v ↙ and zero for a stationary object (v = 0)
• Non-negative
• Depends on the magnitude of velocity but not on its direction
• Measured in Joule (J = kg · m2 /s2 )

[Lecture 6 to here]

References
[1] D. Halliday and R. Resnick. Principles of Physics. John Wiley and Sons Inc, 2023 (12th).

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