This file will help you to gain/revise all

basics of STD 11 which will help you to

understand the basics of STD 12 concepts
in MATHEMATICS. Generally majority of
students commits errors while applying
these theories being unaware in previous
session that these concepts will be
required to understand higher level
concepts in upcoming sessions. So, this
file is made by keeping all factors in mind
so that you never fall into trouble while
understanding basics of STD 12.

REMEMBER : “WHEN YOU KNOW BETTER,

YOU DO BETTER”

P.K.R
FIRST STEP to STD 12
Mathematics

By - Abhishek Singh
XII Mathematics beginners guide

Prior Knowledge Required

GENERAL BASICS :

1. RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS :

A relation and a function are both mathematical concepts that describe relationships
between sets of numbers, but they have key differences…
(i) RELATION : A relation is a set of ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) where 𝑥 is from the domain
and 𝑦 is from the range. A relation can associate one input with multiple outputs.
Example :
R = {(1,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,5)}
FUNCTION : A function is a special type of relation where each input (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
is paired with exactly one output (𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒). That is, no 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 is repeated
with different 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠.
Example :
F = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,5)}
(ii) Cartesian product of sets :
Let us consider two sets 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏} and 𝐵 = {1,2,3}, then the cartesian products
of these two sets will be : 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑏, 3)}.
A similar example is represented diagrammatically below.
You may also refer/follow the following format given in the diagram as shown :

(iii) CONCEPT OF DOMAIN AND RANGE OF FUNCTIONS :

DOMAIN : The set of all possible input values (𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠) for which the
function is defined.
RANGE : The set of all possible output values (𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠) that the
function can produce.
LINEAR FUNCTION : Consider : 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3
✓ Domain : All real numbers (ℝ) because you can plug in any value of 𝑥.
✓ Range : All real numbers (ℝ), since a linear function continues indefinitely
in both directions.
SQUARE ROOT FUNCTION : Consider : 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥
✓ Domain : 𝑥 ≠ 0 (since square roots of negative numbers are not real).
✓ Range : 𝑦 ≠ 0 (because the square root function always gives non-negative
results).

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

1
RATIONAL FUNCTION : Consider : ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥

✓ Domain : 𝑥 ≠ 0 (division by zero is undefined).

1
✓ Range : 𝑦 ≠ 0 (since 𝑥 never equals to zero).
TYPES OF FUNCTIONS :
Various situations of functions are divided into four basic categories as shown below…

a. INTO FUNCTION : A function in which at least one element in the codomain of the
given function will not have its pre image in the domain of the same function.

b. ONTO FUNCTION : A function in which all the elements of the codomain of the
given function will have its pre image in the domain of the same function.

c. ONE-ONE FUNCTION : A function in which each element of the codomain of the

given function has only and only one pre image in the domain of the same
function.

d. MANY-ONE FUNCTION : A function in which at least one element in the codomain

of the given function will have more than one pre image in the domain of the
same function.

NOTE :
✓ ONE-ONE FUNCTIONS are also known as INJECTIVE FUNCTIONS.
✓ ONTO FUNCTIONS are also known as SURJECTIVE FUNCTIONS.
✓ ONE-ONE & ONTO FUNCTIONS are also known as BIJECTIVE FUNCTIONS.
Let use consider 𝑚 elements in set A and 𝑛 elements in set B respectively.
Now observe the following points carefully :
✓ The total number of relations is given by 2𝑚𝑛 .
✓ The total number of functions (many-one + one-one) is given by 𝑛 𝑚 .

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

𝑛!
✓ The total number of one-one functions (injective) is given by 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑚) = (𝑛−𝑚)!
… Since a function is one-one if different elements in A map to different
elements in B. The number of ways to assign 𝑚 distinct elements of A to 𝑛
distinct elements of B (without repetition) is given by the above expression.
✓ The total number of many-one functions is given by 𝑛 𝑚 − 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑚)… Since
many-one functions includes all functions except injective ones. So, we
subtract one-one functions from the total number of functions.
✓ The total number of onto functions is given by :
𝑛

𝑛 𝑚 − ∑(−1)𝑘 . 𝑛𝑘𝐶 . (𝑛 − 𝑘)𝑚

𝑘=0
In the above case, 𝑚 ≥ 𝑛. When 𝑚 < 𝑛 there are no onto functions from A to
B, since all elements will not be covered in the range of the function. So, for
𝑚 > 𝑛 the count will be zero.
✓ The total number of into functions is given by 𝑛 𝑚 − 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠.

2. TRIGONOMETRY :

QUADRANT CONCEPT :

CIRCULAR FUNCTION CONCEPT :

Lear then following patterns to make it easy for memorizing formulas conveniently…

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

“S” denotes "𝑠𝑖𝑛"

“C” denotes "𝑐𝑜𝑠" PATTERN – 1 PATTERN – 2

S C S S

C S S S

C C C C

S S C C

THEORY 1 : BUILDING BLOCK FORMULAS

1. sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = Sin 𝐴 . Cos 𝐵 + Cos 𝐴 . Sin 𝐵

PATTERN – 1 USED
2. cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = Cos 𝐴 . Cos 𝐵 − Sin 𝐴 . Sin 𝐵
tan 𝐴+tan 𝐵
3. tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 1−tan 𝐴.tan 𝐵

SPECIAL CASE :

Let us suppose that if 𝐴 = 𝐵 = 𝜃 in the above two expressions ;

Then : sin(𝜃 + 𝜃) = sin(2𝜃) = sin 𝜃 . cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 . sin 𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 . cos 𝜃

cos(𝜃 + 𝜃) = cos(2𝜃) = cos 𝜃 . cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 . sin 𝜃 = cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃
tan 𝜃+tan 𝜃 2 tan 𝜃
tan(𝜃 + 𝜃) = tan(2𝜃) = 1−tan 𝜃.tan 𝜃 = 1−tan2 𝜃
1 − sin2 𝜃 1 − cos2 𝜃
NOTE :
cos(2𝜃) can also be written as : 2 cos2 𝜃 − 1 OR 1 − 2 sin2 𝜃

THEORY 2 : CONVERSION FORMULAS

We may convert one trigo formula in terms of other as per our requirements with the help of
following expressions… Carefully observe their proofs as well…

1. sin(2𝜃) in terms of tan(2𝜃)

2 sin 𝜃.cos 𝜃
⟹ sin(2𝜃) = 2 sin 𝜃 . cos 𝜃 =
1
2 sin 𝜃.cos 𝜃
⟹
sin2 𝜃+cos2 𝜃
Now : on dividing numerator and denominator with highest power of cos 𝜃, we get ;
2 sin 𝜃.cos 𝜃 2 sin 𝜃
( cos 𝜃 )
cos2 𝜃
⟹ sin2 𝜃+cos2 𝜃
= sin2 𝜃 cos2 𝜃
+
cos2 𝜃 cos2 𝜃 cos2 𝜃
2 tan 𝜃
⟹ tan2 𝜃+1
2 tan 𝜃
⟹ 1+tan2 𝜃

2. cos(2𝜃) in terms of tan(2𝜃)

cos2 𝜃−sin2 𝜃
⟹ cos(2𝜃) = cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = 1
cos2 𝜃−sin2 𝜃
⟹ sin2 𝜃+cos2 𝜃
Now : Dividing numerator and denominator using cos2 𝜃, we get ;

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

cos2 𝜃−sin2 𝜃
( )
cos2 𝜃
⟹ sin2 𝜃+cos2 𝜃
cos2 𝜃
1−tan2 𝜃
⟹
tan2 𝜃+1
(1−tan2 𝜃)
⟹ 1+tan2 𝜃

Above conversion formulas are the most important formulas used frequently in INTEGRATION.

THEORY 3 : PRODUCT TO SUM CONVERSION

2 sin 𝐴 . cos 𝐵 = sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)

2 cos 𝐴 . sin 𝐵 = sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)

PATTERN – 1 PATTERN – 2
2 cos 𝐴 . cos 𝐵 = cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)

2 sin 𝐴 . sin 𝐵 = cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) − cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)

THEORY 4 : SUM TO PRODUCT CONVERSION

𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
sin 𝐶 + sin 𝐷 = 2 sin . cos
2 2
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
sin 𝐶 − sin 𝐷 = 2 cos . sin
2 2
PATTERN – 2 PATTERN – 1
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
cos 𝐶 + cos 𝐷 = 2 cos . cos
2 2
𝐶+𝐷 𝐷−𝐶
cos 𝐶 − cos 𝐷 = 2 sin . sin
2 2

POINTS TO REMEMBER :

Since, sin(2𝜃) = 2 sin 𝜃 . cos 𝜃 ; we observe that in right side of the expression, the matter
with sin and cos is just the half of what sin has in the left side of the expression.
𝑥 𝑥
Similarly, if we see sin 𝑥 , we can expand it as 2 sin 2 . cos 2 …
𝑥 𝑥
i.e., sin 𝑥 = 2 sin 2 . cos 2

For cos(2𝜃) = cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃… If we see expression like cos 𝑥 we can expand it as
𝑥 𝑥
cos2 2 − sin2 2 …
𝑥 𝑥
i.e., cos 𝑥 = cos2 2 − sin2 2
𝑥
2 tan 𝜃 2 tan2
For tan(2𝜃) = … if we see expression like tan 𝑥 we can expand it as 𝑥 …
1−tan2 𝜃 1−tan2
2
𝑥
2 tan2
i.e., tan 𝑥 = 𝑥
1−tan22

THEORY 5 : TRIGONOMETRIC PERIODIC FUNCTIONS (GRAPH CONCEPT)

1. Graph of sin 𝑥 : NEXT PAGE …

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

2. Graph of cos 𝑥 :

3. Graph of combined sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 :

4. Graph of tan 𝑥 :

THEORY 6 : QUADRANT CONCEPT

Remember one statement : “ADD SUGAR TO COFFEE”… We will consider only the 1st alphabet of all
words in the quoted sentence above.

In graph, it’s A for ALL, S for SIN, T for TAN, C for COS.

REMEMBER SOME RULES FOR CALCULATION OF TRIGO FUNCTION VALUES IN PERIODIC FUNCTION :

STEP 1 : Find the quadrant

STEP 2 : Sign convention

STEP 3 : Name of value

Will Discuss on above three steps later in this module…

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 XII Mathematics beginners guide

Only “sin” and its reciprocal All trigonometric ratios are

“cosec” are positive positive in this quadrant

Only “tan” and its reciprocal Only “cos” and its reciprocal
“cot” are positive “sec” are positive

SOME INSTRUCTIONS NEEDED TO FOLLOW :

1. Always follow anticlockwise direction at initial stage, from positive direction of x-axis.
2. Mark an arrow on the designated value in the given question.
3. When we add value in the designated value, we continue anticlockwise direction.
4. When we subtract value in the designated value, we continue with clockwise (opposite)
direction.
5. Then we get the desired Quadrant.
6. Then we will find the sign of the value in that quadrant.
7. Then if the designated value rests on x-axis, the name will NOT CHANGE.
8. If the designated value rests on y-axis, the name will CHANGE as it changes in complementary
angle rule.

COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES :
1. sin(900 − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃
2. cos(900 − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃
3. tan(900 − 𝜃) = cot 𝜃
4. cot(900 − 𝜃) = tan 𝜃
5. sec(900 − 𝜃) = csc 𝜃
6. 𝑐𝑠𝑐(900 − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃

3𝜋
Suppose for an example you need to find the value of : sin ( 2 − 𝑥)
3𝜋
STEP 1 : Since, the designated point in the question is , we will start from positive 𝑥 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
2
3𝜋
and move towards the point on the graph.
2
3𝜋
STEP 2 : Now, since in the question we are subtracting some value 𝑥 from 2
therefore, we
will follow clockwise (opposite) direction. Then we find that we are now lying in 3 rd quadrant…

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

STEP 3 : In 3rd quadrant the sign of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 will be negative…

3𝜋
STEP 4 : Also the name will change as the designated point on the graph was which is on
2
𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
3𝜋
STEP 5 : So, the final value of sin ( 2 − 𝑥) will be − cos 𝑥.

3. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS :

The format of quadratic equation is : 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.

This quadratic equation will give two values of 𝑥. We also call them as zeros or
roots of quadratic equation.
𝑏
SUM OF ROOTS : 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝑎
𝑐
PRODUCT OF ROOTS : 𝛼. 𝛽 = 𝑎
QUADRATIC FORMULA :

4. LINEAR INEQUATIONS :

In this topic we will deal with the equations having symbols : <, >, ≤, ≥ .

✓ OPEN INTERVALS : Values written in open interval(s) are not included in

answers. In this case the values are written within ( … ).
✓ CLOSED INTERVALS : Values written in closed interval(s) are included in
answers. In this case the values are written within [ … ].

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

Let us consider some examples with the help of real number lines…

In the above examples : 𝑥 > 2 can also be expressed as 𝑥 ∈ (2, ∞), 𝑥 < 5 can also be
expressed as 𝑥 ∈ (∞, 5), 𝑥 ≥ 3 can also be expressed as 𝑥 ∈ [3, ∞), and 𝑥 ≤ 6 can
also be expressed as 𝑥 ∈ (∞, 6].

5. DERIVATIVES :
THEORY 1 : NOTATIONS
𝑑
✓ , means derivative with respect to 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
✓ , means derivative with respect to 𝑦.
𝑑𝑦
…………..
…………..
………….. so on………
✓ If 𝑓(𝑥) is some function in terms of 𝑥, then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) will be called as derivative of 𝑓(𝑥).
EXAMPLE : 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 ; then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 2−1 = 2𝑥 … Will get to know about it later in
this module…STAY TUNED!!!

THEORY 2 : CHAIN RULE

✓ We will use this rule each time we find derivative of any given function.
i.e., we will differentiate the function part wise (in product form).
EXAMPLE 1 : Find the derivate of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 with respect to 𝑥.
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑥 2 ) × 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
EXAMPLE 2 : Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(𝑥 2 ) with respect to 𝑥.
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
sin(𝑥 2 ) × 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥) 2 × 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
EXAMPLE 3 : Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = log[tan2 (𝑥 5 )] with respect to 𝑥.
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(log[tan2 (𝑥 5 )]) × (tan2 (𝑥 5 )) × tan(𝑥 5 ) × (𝑥)5 × (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
✓ In above examples we observe that for the first time we differentiate the complete function
and then we break the function gradually step by step and then differentiate them.

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

That is : if we see in example 1, it is clear that we must first differentiate with the power of 𝑥
and then without power of 𝑥… similarly in example 2, we see that we should first differentiate
with trigo function then without trigo function then with power of 𝑥 then without power of
𝑥… similarly in example 3, we see that we should first differentiate with log function then
without log then with power of trigo function then without power of trigo then with power of
𝑥 then without power of 𝑥…

PRACTICE QUESTIONS :

Split the following functions using chain rule :

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 LEVEL 1
𝑥2
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
3
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5
1
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4
5. 𝑓(𝑥) = log(𝑥 2 ) LEVEL 2
6. 𝑓(𝑥) = log(sin2 (𝑥 3 ))
7. 𝑓(𝑥) = log(tan(𝑥 5 ))
1
8. 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑥

THEORY 3 : 1ST RULE TO FIND DERIVATIVES OF 𝑥 𝑛 forms

𝑑
Rule : (𝑥)𝑛 = 𝑛. 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 . 𝑥 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟−1
𝑑𝑥

REMEMBER :

1. Derivative of 𝑥 w.r.t 𝑥 is 1.
Derivative of 𝑦 w.r.t 𝑦 is 1.
Derivative of (any variable) w.r.t (same variable) = 1.
2. Derivative of any constant w.r.t 𝑥 or any other variable = 0.
𝑑 𝑑
EXAMPLE 1 : (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥)1 = 1. (𝑥)1−1 = 1. (𝑥)0 = 1.1 = 1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
EXAMPLE 2 : (𝑐) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐). (1) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑐). (𝑥 0 ) = 𝑐. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥)0 = 𝑐. [0. 𝑥 0−1 ] = 0
𝑑𝑥

EXAMPLE 3 : Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 with respect to 𝑥.

𝑑 𝑑
⇒ 𝑥5 . 𝑥 CHAIN RULE (With power then without power…)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

⇒ [5. (𝑥)5−1 ]. [1] REMEMBER SECTION ; POINT NO.1

⇒ 5. 𝑥 4
3
EXAMPLE 4 : Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 with respect to 𝑥.
3
𝑑
⇒ 2𝑥 2
CHAIN RULE (With power then without power…)
𝑑𝑥
3
𝑑 𝑑
⇒ 2{ 𝑥2 . 𝑥}
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
3
⇒ 2 {[2 . 𝑥 2−1 ] . [1]}

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

1
3
⇒ 2 {2 . 𝑥 2 }

3
⇒ 2 {2 √𝑥} = 3√𝑥 ANS

EXAMPLE 5 : Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 5 with respect to 𝑥.

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ [3. 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑥] − [2. 𝑑𝑥 𝑥] + [𝑑𝑥 5]

⇒ [3. (3𝑥 3−1 ). (1)] − [2. (1)] + [0]

⇒ [9. 𝑥 2 ] − [2]

⇒ 9𝑥 2 − 2

PRACTICE QUESTIONS :

Differentiate the following functions with respect to 𝑥 and do as directed :

1. Find the derivative of 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 at 𝑥 = 2 LEVEL 3

(2𝑥 2
2. Find the derivative of + 1) at 𝑥 = 1
3. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7, prove that : 𝑓 ′ (2) = 5. 𝑓 ′ (1). LEVEL 4
2 ′
4. If for the function of 𝑓 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 4, 𝑓 (𝑥) = 37, find the value of 𝑘.

Differentiate the following functions with respect to 𝑥 :

(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 LEVEL 5

(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 3
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)2 LEVEL 6
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 3)3
2
2𝑥 2
(v) 𝑓(𝑥) = + 𝑥 3 LEVEL 7
3
2 5 3
(vi) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 9√ 𝑥 − 2𝑎
5

THEORY 4 : EVALUATION OF 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) FORMS WHEN THEY CANNOT BE MULTIPLIED & EXPANDED

It is very easy to multiply and expand terms like (2𝑥 + 3)(3𝑥 − 1) or 2𝑥. (3𝑥 − 4)2 … But it’s
3
a difficult task to multiply and expand terms like (2𝑥 − 1). √3𝑥 + 7 or (log 𝑥 2 ). (3𝑥 − 1)2 …

So therefore, we have a property to find the derivative of such expressions :

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑔(𝑥). 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

NOTE : Both the functions must be in terms of 𝑥…

3
CHAIN RULE (With power then without power…)
EXAMPLE 6 : 𝑓(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 1)2 . (3𝑥 − 1)
3 3
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ (3𝑥 − 1). [𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥 + 1)2 . 𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥 + 1)] + (2𝑥 + 1)2 . [𝑑𝑥 (3𝑥 − 1)]
3 3
3
⇒ (3𝑥 − 1). [(2 . (2𝑥 + 1)2−1 ) . (2.1 + 0)] + (2𝑥 + 1)2 . [3. (1) − 0]
1 3
3
⇒ 2
. (3𝑥 − 1). (2𝑥 + 1)2 . 2 + 3. (2𝑥 + 1)2
3
⇒ 3. (3𝑥 − 1). √2𝑥 + 1 + 3. (2𝑥 + 1)2

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS :

Find the derivatives of the following functions with respect to 𝑥 :

2 3
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 5)3 . (3𝑥 + 7)2 LEVEL 8
3
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = √2𝑥 + 1 . √3𝑥 − 1
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 + 5). (2𝑥 3 − 3)3
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = (4𝑥 3 + 1). √2𝑥 − 1

𝑓(𝑥)
THOERY 5 : EVALUATION OF 𝑔(𝑥) FORMS WHEN THEY CAN’T BE DIVIDED COMPLETELY

𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥).𝑑𝑥𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥).𝑑𝑥𝑔(𝑥)
( ) = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) (𝑔(𝑥))

sin 𝑥
EXAMPLE 7 : Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑥 with respect to 𝑥

STEP 1 : properly substitute the values in the above formula

𝑑 𝑑
(log 𝑥.𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥−sin 𝑥.𝑑𝑥 log 𝑥)
(log 𝑥)2

STEP 2 : Evaluate using chain rule wherever required

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
log 𝑥.[𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥.𝑑𝑥𝑥]−sin 𝑥.[𝑑𝑥 log 𝑥.𝑑𝑥𝑥]
(log 𝑥)2

1
log 𝑥.cos 𝑥.1−sin 𝑥.𝑥.1
(log 𝑥)2

sin 𝑥
cos 𝑥.log 𝑥− 𝑥
(log 𝑥)2

PRACTICE QUESTIONS :

Differentiate the following functions with respect to 𝑥 :

log 𝑥
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = LEVEL 9
𝑥
sin 𝑥
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2+1
𝑎 tan 𝑥
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
cos 𝑥
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) =
1+tan 𝑥
𝑥 5−cos 𝑥
(v) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
𝑥.sin 𝑥
(vi) 𝑓(𝑥) = LEVEL 10
1+cos 𝑥
(2𝑥.log 𝑥)
(vii) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥

THEORY 6 : LOGARITHMIC DERIVATIVES

According to chain rule we must first differentiate with log and then without log.
𝑑 1
log 𝑥 =𝑥
𝑑𝑥

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EXAMPLE 8 : 𝑓(𝑥) = log 3𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
⇒ log 3𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
⇒ log 3𝑥 . 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1 1
⇒ . 3(1) = 𝑥
3𝑥

EXAMPLE 9 : 𝑓(𝑥) = log(3𝑥 2 + 4)

𝑑 𝑑
⇒ log(3𝑥 2 + 4) . 𝑑𝑥 (3𝑥 2 + 4)
𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ . [𝑑𝑥 3𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 4]
3𝑥 2+4

1 𝑑 2
⇒ . [3 𝑥 + 0]
3𝑥 2+4 𝑑𝑥

1
⇒ . [3. (2𝑥 2−1 )]
3𝑥 2+4
1 6𝑥
⇒ 3𝑥 2+4
. 6𝑥 = 3𝑥 2+4

PRACTICE QUESTIONS :

Find the derivatives of the following functions with respect to 𝑥 :

(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = log(3𝑥 − 1) LEVEL 11

(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = log(𝑥 2 + 1)
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = log √𝑥
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = log(𝑥 2 − 1)2 LEVEL 12
3
(v) 𝑓(𝑥) = log(2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1) 2

(vi) 𝑓(𝑥) = √2𝑥 − 3 . log(2𝑥 − 1) LEVEL 13

(vii) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1)(log 2𝑥 3 )
2
(viii) 𝑓(𝑥) = log(𝑥 − 1)2 . 3(2𝑥 + 1)3

THEORY 7 : DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

𝑑
1. (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
2. (cos 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
3. (tan 𝑥 ) = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
4. (cot 𝑥 ) = − csc 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
5. (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 . tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
6. (csc 𝑥) = − csc 𝑥 . cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

DO NOT forget to apply chain rule… First with trigo function and then without trigo function…

EXAMPLE 10 : 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 2

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ (sin 𝑥 2 ). 𝑥 2 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

⇒ (cos 𝑥 2 ). (2𝑥). (1)

⇒ 2𝑥. cos 𝑥 2

EXAMPLE 11 : 𝑓(𝑥) = sec(2𝑥 2 + 1)

𝑑 𝑑
⇒ (sec(2𝑥 2 + 1)). 𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑑𝑥

⇒ [sec(2𝑥 2 + 1) . tan(2𝑥 2 + 1)]. [4𝑥 + 0]

⇒ 4𝑥 . [sec(2𝑥 2 + 1) . tan(2𝑥 2 + 1)]

EXAMPLE 12 : 𝑓(𝑥) = log(sin2 𝑥)

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ [log(sin2 𝑥)]. (sin2 𝑥). (sin 𝑥). (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
⇒ . (2 sin2−1 𝑥). (cos 𝑥 ). (1)
sin2 𝑥
1
⇒ sin2 𝑥 . 2 sin 𝑥 . cos 𝑥

⇒ 2. cos 𝑥 . csc 𝑥

PRACTICE QUESTIONS :

Differentiate the following functions with respect to 𝑥 :

(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = log(sin 𝑥) LEVEL 14

(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = tan3 𝑥
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos2 (𝑥 4 )
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = sec(log 𝑥)
(v) 𝑓(𝑥) = (sin(2𝑥 + 1)). (cos(2𝑥 − 1)) LEVEL 15
(vi) 𝑓(𝑥) = (log(tan 𝑥)) . (sin(log 𝑥))
(vii) 𝑓(𝑥) = √sin 𝑥 . log(cos 𝑥)
(viii) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos3 (log(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥))
THOERY 8 : DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑
𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑥 . log 𝑒 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑒 𝑥 . (1). (1) = 𝑒 𝑥 ANS
𝑑𝑥

DERIVATIVE OF POWER

QUESTION COPY Log (BASE OF EXPONENT)

NOTE : Whenever you observe 𝑥 to be only in power, apply this theory.

DO NOT FORGET 3 STEP PROCESS (as shown above)

EXAMPLE 13 : 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
𝑑
⇒ 2𝑥 . log 2 . 𝑥 = 2𝑥 . log 2
𝑑𝑥
2
EXAMPLE 14 : 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

2 𝑑 2 2
⇒ 𝑎 𝑥 . log 𝑎 . 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥)2 = 𝑎 𝑥 . log 𝑎 . (2𝑥) = 2𝑥. 𝑎 𝑥 log 𝑎

EXAMPLE 15 : 𝑓(𝑥) = 2sin(log 𝑥) CHAIN RULE

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ 2sin(log 𝑥) . log 2 . [𝑑𝑥 (sin(log 𝑥)). 𝑑𝑥 (log 𝑥). 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥)]

1
⇒ 2sin(log 𝑥) . log 2 . [cos(log 𝑥) . 𝑥 . 1]

EXAMPLE 16 : 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 log 𝑥.sin 𝑥

𝑑
⇒ 𝑎 log 𝑥.sin 𝑥 . log 𝑎 . [𝑑𝑥 (log 𝑥 . sin 𝑥)]

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ 𝑎 log 𝑥.sin 𝑥 . log 𝑎 . [sin 𝑥 . {𝑑𝑥 (log 𝑥). 𝑑𝑥 𝑥} + log 𝑥 . {𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑥}]

1
⇒ 𝑎 log 𝑥.sin 𝑥 . log 𝑎 . [sin 𝑥 . . 1 + log 𝑥 . cos 𝑥 . 1]
𝑥

sin 𝑥
⇒ 𝑎 log 𝑥.sin 𝑥 . log 𝑎 . [ + cos 𝑥 . log 𝑥]
𝑥

PRACTICE QUESTIONS :

Find the derivative of following functions with respect to 𝑥 :

(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2sin 𝑥 LEVEL 16

3
2𝑥 2
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = (sin 𝜋)log 𝑥
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = (2 cos 𝑎)𝑥.log 𝑥 LEVEL 17
𝜋sin 𝑥.log 𝑥
(v) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
2
(vi) 𝑓(𝑥) = (log 𝑎)𝑥 .sin 𝑥

7. PERMUATATION AND COMBINATION :

Permutation means arrangement of objects…
Combination means selection of objects…
When you have two or more than two alike objects and you are in need to select
some of them, then you have to use the concept of combination.
For example :
Let us consider 3 red balls. 1st red ball belong to person A with the label Ψ, 2nd ball
belong to person B with the label Θ, and 3rd ball belong to person C with the label
Φ.
A B C

Ψ Θ Φ
All the three balls are of same colour but with different labels and belongs to
different owners. So, if you want to select two balls out of them, then you have 3
different combinations as shown below :

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

COMBINATIONS OWNERS
𝚿, 𝚯 A and B
𝚿, 𝚽 A and C
𝚽, 𝚯 B and C
We will not/never consider the reverse orders o combinations because order does
not matter in combination (order matters/counts only in
permutations/arrangements). If you select red balls of owners A and B, then this
combination is same as red balls of owners B and A. Ultimately you are selecting
the red balls belonging to the owners A and B at the end. Therefore, we have in
total of 3 different combinations when we select two out of 3 balls.
Not every time we have to make a table to decide the total number of
combinations/selections. We can use the formula for finding total number of
combinations/selections given in this section (where n = total objects available, r =
number of objects that are to be selected at a time).
PERMUTATION means arrangement.
CONSIDER :

If you observe carefully, in the first case, the boy finds the girl on his left and in
second case, the boy finds the girl on his right.
We conclude both the arrangements to be different whereas the combination still
remains the same as both of them are standing together in both the cases.
Hence, there are two permutations/arrangements and one combination/selection.

8. EQUATIONS OF A STRAIGHT LINE :

Theory 1 : SLOPE of a line :

Slope of a line is the ratio of vertical to horizontal distance of two points
considered on the given line (as shown in the diagram given below), i.e.,
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
.
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
Please observe the following diagram carefully…

Type equation here.

Theory 2 : To find the equation of a line :

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

STEP 1 : Always seek for the value of slope of the line whose equation has
been asked in the question, first. If directly not mentioned in the question,
then you must observe the question, indirectly slope must be hidden
somewhere in the provided data.

WAYS TO FIND SLOPE OF A GIVEN LINE :

IN TOTAL WE HAVE ONLY 3 CONDITIONS TO FIND THE SLOPE OF A GIVEN LINE

Condition 1 : When TWO POINTS on the line are known, you can consider
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓.𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑦 −𝑦
→ 𝑥2−𝑥1 .
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓.𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑠 2 1
Condition 2 : When the angle of the line with respect to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is given, then you
may consider tangent of that angle. i.e., tan 𝜃.
Condition 3 : When the equation of line is known, then you first make 𝑦 as the
subject and then you will find that the coefficient of 𝑥 is the slope of the line.
That is why we follow the format : 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. Where 𝑚 is the slope of the line
and 𝑐 is 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 (line and 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 intersection point). Please refer the
diagram given above for more clearance.
STEP 2 : After the completion of STEP 1, consider any random point on the line
(suppose R) and consider its coordinates as (𝑥, 𝑦) so as to get the equation of the
line in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦.
STEP 3 : Now find the slope of the same line but this time you will find the slope
corresponding to the point R.
STEP 4 : Since the slope of line which was calculated in step 3 and step 1 are of same
line, therefore equate them and finally you get the equation of desired line.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE :
Question : Find the equation of a line which is passing through the points A (3,2)
and B (6,5).
Solution :
6−3 3
STEP 1 : Slope of AB = 5−2 = 3 =1

B (6,5)
STEP 2 : Now let us consider a random point 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦) on the line AB.
STEP 3 : Now, ∵ 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝐴𝐵 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝐴𝑅 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑅𝐵
𝑦−2 𝑦−5 R (𝑥, 𝑦)
∴ Either you may consider 𝑥−3 = 1 OR = 1. A (3,2)
𝑥−6
You will ultimately obtain the same equation in both
considerations.
∴ The equation of the line is 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 1 = 0.
Also, if you notice, the points (3,2) and (6,5) satisfies the equation calculated.

Theory 3 : LAW OF PARALLELISM and PERPENDICULARITY :

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

✓ When two lines are parallel, then their slopes are equal.
𝑚1 = 𝑚2
✓ When two lines are perpendicular, then the product of their slopes = -1.
𝑚1 × 𝑚2 = −1
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE :
Question : Find the equation of a line which is parallel to the line 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 1 = 0 and
passing through the point (2,6).

Solution : We need to calculate the equation of the red line as shown, which is parallel
to the line 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 1 = 0. 𝑥−𝑦−1=0
R
A (𝑥, 𝑦)
(2,6)

To find the equation of red line, we must first know the slope of the red line. Since,
the red line is parallel to the blue line therefore, red line’s slope must be equal to the
blue line’s slope.
→ 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ⟹ 𝑦 = 1𝑥 − 1
∴ 𝑚𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 1 = 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
Now, consider any random point on red line as R with coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) as shown in
the diagram…
Again, consider the slope of the red line with respect to the point R.
𝑦−6
=1
𝑥−2
∴𝑥−𝑦+4=0
Thus, the required equation of the line is 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0.

Theory 4 : INTERCEPT FORM OF A LINE :

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

Equation of a line which is intersecting both the axes at the same time is given by :
𝑥 𝑦
+ = 1.
𝑥−𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑦−𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡

Theory 5 : PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE OF A POINT FROM A LINE :

9. LIMITS :
THEORY 1: INTRODUCTION TO LIMITS :

Question 1. What does LIMITS chapter deal with?

Limits chapter is the study of NEIGHBOURHOODS of any function at a point.

EXAMPLE 1: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 ; The study of neighbourhoods of function 2𝑥 at a certain point like 𝑥 =
0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3 … so on… 𝑥 can be equal to any
number.
𝑥
NOW : lim+ 𝑥, this expression will be read as “ limit 𝑥 tends/approaches to 0+ , 𝑥 by 𝑥”…
𝑥→0

Here, 𝑥 tends to ‘zero plus’ means value of 𝑥 is not exactly equal to zero, instead 𝑥 is minutely
ahead of zero. That is 𝑥 may be suppose 0.00000001 or 0.00000002, which is a very small value and
that too neighbourhood of zero, but in positive direction (i.e., right neighbour of zero). Similarly, for 𝑥
tends to ‘zero negative’ means value of 𝑥 is minutely behind the zero (suppose -0.00000001 or -
0.00000002)…

THEORY 2: EXISTENCE OF LIMITS :

Limit for a function is said to be existing if and only if, the limit of left neighbour of the function equals
to the limit of right neighbour of the same function. For lim 𝑓(𝑥) : lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

|𝑥|
EXAMPLE 2: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = , check whether the limit of the given function at point 𝑥 = 0 exists or not?
𝑥

−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
STEP 1: First we have to keep note of the theory : |𝑥| = { .
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0

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XII Mathematics beginners guide

|𝑥| 𝑥
STEP 2: Then consider limit of left neighbour first : lim− = lim− − 𝑥 = lim− −1 = −1.
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

|𝑥| 𝑥
STEP 3: Then consider limit of right neighbour : lim+ = lim+ 𝑥 = lim+ 1 = 1.
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

NOW: since we observe that the left neighbour value is not equal to the right neighbour
value of the same function, therefore we conclude that the limit for this function DOES NOT EXIST.
2𝑥, 𝑥 < 2
EXAMPLE 3: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 , check for the existence of limit for this function at 𝑥 = 2.
𝑥 , 𝑥≥2
STEP 1: Left neighbour of the function: lim− 2𝑥 = 2(2) = 4.
𝑥→2

STEP 2: Right neighbour of the function: lim+ 𝑥 2 = 22 = 4.

𝑥→2

NOW: since we observe that the left neighbour value is equal to the right neighbour value of
the same function, therefore we conclude that the limit for this function EXIST.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS :

1. Evaluate the following limits : LEVEL 1

(i) lim (𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 3 )
𝑥→1
(ii) lim 𝑥(𝑥 3 − 20)
𝑥→(−3)
2. Evaluate the following limits : LEVEL 2
4𝑥−5
(i) lim
𝑥→4 𝑥−3
𝑥 2+5
(ii) lim 𝑥+100
𝑥→2
3. CHECK FOR EXISTENCE OF LIMITS : LEVEL 3
1 + 𝑥2 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
(i) If 𝑓(𝑥) = { , does lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist?
2 − 𝑥, 𝑥 > 1 𝑥→1
1
𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2
1
(ii) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, 𝑥 = 2 , does lim1 𝑓(𝑥) exist?
𝑥→2
1
{𝑥 − 1, <𝑥≤1
2
4. LOGICAL BASED : LEVEL 4
3𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 < 0
Let 𝑓 be defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = { 0 , 𝑥 = 0 . Evaluate
2𝑥 + 5, 𝑥 > 0
(i) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2
(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→(−3)
Does lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist? If no, explain.
𝑥→0
5. EXISTENCE BASED CALCULATION : LEVEL 5
4𝑥 − 5, 𝑥 ≤ 2
(i) Find 𝑘 so that lim 𝑓(𝑥) may exist where 𝑓(𝑥) = { .
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 𝑘, 𝑥 > 2
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥, 𝑥 < 1
(ii) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = { 4, 𝑥 = 1 and if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1), what are the possible values of a
𝑥→1
𝑏 − 𝑎𝑥, 𝑥 > 1
and b?

THEORY 3: EVALUATION OF LIMITS : (by cancellation of factors)

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Question 2. Why we need to cancel factors in limits?

0
When we observe 0 form after removing limits and substituting the approximate value
in place of 𝑥, we have to cancel the factor in the denominator which leads to zero in denominator.
Because, if we get a zero in the denominator, the value of the limit will not be defined. Thus, we say
this form as INDETERMINATE FORM.

EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate the following limits :

3(2)2 − 2 − 10 0
=
22 − 4 0

3𝑥 2−𝑥−10 3𝑥 2−6𝑥+5𝑥−10 3𝑥(𝑥−2)+5(𝑥−2) (3𝑥+5)(𝑥−2) 3𝑥+5

(i) lim ⟹ lim = = =
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −4 𝑥→2 (𝑥+2)(𝑥−2) (𝑥+2)(𝑥−2) (𝑥+2)(𝑥−2) 𝑥+2

(𝑥) 2 − (2)2 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)

If you observe carefully, you will find (𝑥 − 2) in the denominator, which leads to zero. Therefore, if we
cancel this anyhow by evaluating the numerator part of the function, then we can get a definite value
of it.

Now when we remove limit part and substitute the value of 𝑥 as (approx.) 2 in both the
(3)(2)+5 11
numerator and denominator, we get the value of function as = . Hence, cancellation of
2+2 4
factors helped us to get a definite value of this limit.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS :

1. Evaluate the following limits : LEVEL 6

4𝑥 2−1
(i) lim1 2𝑥−1
𝑥→ 2
𝑥−1
(ii) lim 2𝑥 2−7𝑥+5
𝑥→1
𝑥 3 −4𝑥 2+4𝑥
(iii) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 2−4
𝑥 3−2𝑥 2
(iv) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6

(𝑥)𝑛 −(𝑎)𝑛
THEORY 4: USING FORMULA lim 𝑥−𝑎
= 𝑛. 𝑎 𝑛−1
𝑥→𝑎

2. Evaluate the following limits : LEVEL 7

𝑥 2 −9
(i) lim 𝑥−3
𝑥→3
𝑥 3 −27
(ii) lim 𝑥−3
𝑥→3
𝑥 4 −16
(iii) lim 𝑥−2
𝑥→2
𝑥 15 −1
(iv) lim LEVEL 8
𝑥→1 𝑥 10 −1
8𝑥 3−1
(v) lim1 16𝑥 4−1
𝑥→2

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𝑥 3+27
(vi) lim
𝑥→(−3) 𝑥 5+243
1
𝑧 3 −1
(vii) lim 1
𝑧→1 𝑧 6 −1
((1+𝑥)5 −1)
(viii) lim LEVEL 9
𝑥→0 𝑥
((1−𝑥)𝑛 −1)
(ix) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
(1+𝑥)6−1
(x) lim
𝑥→0 (1+𝑥)2−1
5 5
(𝑥+2)3 −(𝑎+2)3
(xi) lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
(𝑥 4−√𝑥)
(xii) lim
𝑥→1 √𝑥−1

THEORY 5: USING RATIONALISATION FOR EVALUATION OF LIMITS

3. Evaluate the following limits : LEVEL 10

√1+3𝑥−√1−3𝑥
(i) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
√1+𝑥−√1+𝑥
(ii) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥 2 −9
(iii) lim
𝑥→(−3) √𝑥 2+16−5
√𝑎+2𝑥−√3𝑥
(iv) lim 3𝑎+𝑥−2 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 √ √

4. MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS :
|𝑥−4|
(i) Prove that lim does not exist.
𝑥→4 𝑥−4
𝑥 𝑛−3𝑛
(ii) If lim 𝑥−3 = 108 and 𝑛 𝜖 𝑁, find 𝑛.
𝑥→3
(iii) If 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| − 5, evaluate the following limits :
(a) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→5
(b) lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→5
(c) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→5
(d) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→(−5)
3
𝑥 2 −8
(iv) lim
𝑥→4 𝑥−4
𝑥−|𝑥|
, 𝑥≠0
(v) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 , show that lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
−2 , 𝑥 = 0 𝑥→0

THEORY 6: TRIGONOMETRIC LIMITS

We will use following five standard results of trigonometric limits :

1. lim sin 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0
2. lim cos 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→0
3. lim tan 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0
sin 𝑥
4. lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
tan 𝑥
5. lim 𝑥 =1
𝑥→0

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SAME

REMEMBER :
sin(𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔→0) sin 2𝑥
(i) lim =1 EXAMPLE 5: lim = 1 ∵ when 𝑥 → 0, 2𝑥 → 0
𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔→0 (𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔→0) 𝑥→0 2𝑥
sin 𝑎𝑥
sin 𝑎𝑥 ( 𝑎𝑥 .𝑎𝑥) 𝑎𝑥 𝑎 𝑎
(ii) EXAMPLE 6: Evaluate the limit : lim ⟹ lim ⇒ lim 𝑏𝑥 ⇒ lim 𝑏 = 𝑏
𝑥→0 𝑏𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑏𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

PRACTICE QUESTIONS :

1. Evaluate the following limits : LEVEL 11

(i) lim𝜋 sin 𝑥
𝑥→ 2
sin 2𝑥
(ii) lim𝜋
𝑥→ 4 𝑥
2+tan 𝑥
(iii) lim
3𝜋 5+4 tan 𝑥
𝑥→ 4
3 cos 𝑥
(iv) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥−𝜋
(v) lim 𝑥. csc 𝑥
𝑥→0
sin 𝑎𝑥
(vi) lim LEVEL 12
𝑥→0 sin 𝑏𝑥
sin 5𝑥
(vii) lim
𝑥→0 sin 3𝑥
tan 3𝑥
(viii) lim
𝑥→0 5𝑥
(sin2 𝑥)
(ix) lim LEVEL 13
𝑥→0 3𝑥
sin2 2𝑥
(x) lim
𝑥→0 sin2 4𝑥

EVALUATE USING TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS LIKE : sin 2𝑥 , cos 2𝑥 , sin 𝐶 − sin 𝐷 …

1−cos 2𝑥
(xi) lim LEVEL 14
𝑥→0 𝑥2
tan 2𝑥−sin 2𝑥
(xii) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥3
sin 5𝑥−sin 3𝑥
(xiii) lim
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥
𝑥 2 −tan 2𝑥
(xiv) lim
𝑥→0 tan 𝑥

2. Till now we dealt with the limits where 𝑥 → 0 (𝑥 was tending to zero). But what if 𝑥 → 𝑐
where “c” is some constant value and also 𝑐 ≠ 0?
STEP 1: Consider 𝑥 → 𝑐 + ℎ : when ℎ → 0, 𝑥 → 𝑐
STEP 2: Replace original lim 𝑓(𝑥) with lim 𝑓(𝑐 + ℎ)
𝑥→𝑐 ℎ→0
STEP 3: Now evaluate the limit as usual…

sin(𝜋−𝑥)
EXAMPLE 7: Evaluate: lim (NCERT)
𝑥→𝜋 𝜋(𝜋−𝑥)
⟹ Let 𝑥 → 𝜋 + ℎ : when ℎ → 0, 𝑥 → 𝜋
sin(𝜋−𝑥) sin(𝜋−(𝜋+ℎ))
⟹ NOW : lim will change to → lim
𝑥→𝜋 𝜋(𝜋−𝑥) ℎ→0 𝜋(𝜋−(𝜋+ℎ))

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sin(−ℎ) 1 sin(−ℎ) 1 1
⟹ EVALUATION : lim ⇒ 𝜋 lim ⇒ 𝜋 ×1 =𝜋.
ℎ→0 𝜋(−ℎ) ℎ→0 (−ℎ)

Evaluate the following limits : LEVEL 15

𝜋
cos 2 𝑥
(i) lim
𝑥→1 1−𝑥
1+cos 2𝑥
(ii) lim𝜋 (𝜋−2𝑥)2
𝑥→ 2
1−sin 𝑥
(iii) lim𝜋 𝜋 2
𝑥→ 2 ( −𝑥)
2
1−tan 𝑥
(iv) lim𝜋 𝜋
𝑥→ 4 𝑥−4
sin 𝑥−cos 𝑥
(v) lim𝜋 𝜋
𝑥→ 4 𝑥−4
0
3. Whenever you see square root in the limit and that too in 0 form, do not forget to rationalize
first.
sin 𝑥−sin 𝑎
EXAMPLE 8: Evaluate : lim
𝑥→𝑎 √𝑥−√𝑎
𝑥+𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
(sin 𝑥−sin 𝑎)(√𝑥+√𝑎) 2 cos 2 sin 2
STEP 1: Rationalise : lim = lim × (√𝑥 + √𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎 (√𝑥−√𝑎)(√𝑥+√𝑎) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑥−𝑎
𝑥+𝑎 sin 𝑥−𝑎
(2 cos 2 ( 𝑥−𝑎2 × 2 ))
2
STEP 2: Evaluation : lim × (√𝑥 + √𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑥−𝑎
STEP 3: When 𝑥 → 𝑎, (𝑥 − 𝑎) → 0, 2 → 0.
𝑥−𝑎
sin 𝑥−𝑎
( 𝑥−𝑎2 × 2 )
𝑥+𝑎 2
∴ lim 2 cos 2 . 𝑥−𝑎
lim . lim (√𝑥 + √𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎 →0 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
2

𝑎+𝑎 1
2 cos . . 2√𝑎 = 2√𝑎 cos 𝑎 .
2 2

Evaluate the following limits : LEVEL 16

√2−√1+sin 𝑥
(i) lim𝜋
𝑥→ 2 cos2 𝑥

√2−√1+cos 𝑥
(ii) lim
𝑥→0 sin2 𝑥
sin 𝑥−sin 𝑎
(iii) lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑎(𝑥−𝑎)

THEORY 7: EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC LIMITS

1. lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→0
2. lim 𝑎 𝑥 = 1 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
𝑥→0
3. lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
4. lim 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐 ; 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
𝑥→𝑐
5. lim log 𝑥 = log 𝑐; 𝑐>0
𝑥→𝑐
1
6. lim (1 + 𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥→0

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log(1+𝑥)
7. lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥
𝑎 −1
8. lim = log 𝑎 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 −1
9. lim = log 𝑒 = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥

REMEMBER :
log(1+𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔→0)
(i) lim =1
𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔→0 𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔→0
𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔→0−1
(ii) lim = log(𝑎)
𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔→0 𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔→0

SAME

𝑒 7𝑥 −1
EXAMPLE 9: Evaluate : lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

𝑒 7𝑥 −1
⟹ lim . 7 = log 𝑒 . 7 = 7
𝑥→0 7𝑥

PRACTICE QUESTIONS : LEVEL 17

1. Evaluate the following limits :

𝑒 −2𝑥 −1
(i) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
8𝑥 −1
(ii) lim
𝑥→0 tan 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑥−1
(iii) lim 𝑥
𝑥→0
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 3
(iv) lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
√1+𝑥−1
(v) lim
𝑥→0 log(1+𝑥)
32+𝑥 −9
(vi) lim sin 𝑥
𝑥→0

THEORY 8: SOME USEFUL EXPANSIONS NEEDED IN LIMITS

𝑥2
1. 𝑎 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥. log 𝑎 + 2
(log 𝑎)2 + ⋯ ∞
𝑥2
2. 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + ⋯+∞
2
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
3. log(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − + ⋯ ∞ ; −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
2 3 4
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
4. log(1 − 𝑥) = −𝑥 − − − + ⋯ ∞ ; −1 < 𝑥 < 1
2 3 4
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
5. sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3! + − + ⋯∞
5! 7!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
6. cos 𝑥 = 1 − + 4! − 6! + ⋯∞
2!

10. TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAES :

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