CHAPTER 4

Models of Mass Communication

According to Mortensen, “A model is a systematic representation of an object or event in

idealised and abstract form... the act of abstracting eliminates certain details to focus on
essential factors.” In the communication process, a model suggests framework on the basis of
which problems encountered during the process of communication can be identified and
addressed. A model must clarify and simplify the structure of communication and must offer
new dimensions to it in a graphic form.

Karl Deutsch in 1966 lists the following advantages of models in communication:

1. Models perform an organising function by placing the elements of communication

process in a particular order and also suggest the relationship between them.
2. Models provide explanations to complex or ambiguous concepts
3. Models help in listing possible outcomes or suggest sequence of an event

Types of Models: Linear, Transactional and Interactional

S. No. Type Key Features

1 Linear • One way communication
• Used in mass communication
• Sender sends the information and receiver only receive
• No feedback
• No mention of possibility of noise or barrier
• Effective persuasive tool
• Desired results are obtained
• No proper way to determine the effectiveness of
communication as no feedback is recorded
• Not a continuous process
• e.g.: Aristotle’s model of communication, David Berlo’s
model of communication, Shannon and Weaver, Harold D.
Laswell’s model of communication
2 Transactional • Used for interpersonal communication
• Sender and receiver are participants with interchangeable
roles
• Provision for simultaneous feedback
• Includes the content of environment and noise
• Feedback is considered as a fresh message
• e.g.: Helical Model
3. Intersectional • Used for new communications like internet
• Slower feedback
• Facilitates convergence
 • Includes field of experience
• Communication can turn linear if feedback is not received
• e.g. : Wilbur Schramm’s interactive model

I. Linear Model

a. Aristotle’s Model

Aristotle, the teacher of Alexander the great, was a Greek Philosopher. Aristotle developed a
linear model of communication which consisted of five elements; Sender, Speech, Occasion,
Audience and Effect.

Speaker Speech Audience Effects

Occasion

Aristotle’s model was based in oral communication and is known as Aristotelian’s model of
communication. The model is considered the oldest model of communication and dates back
to 300 BC.

According to the model, the Speaker is most central to communication process and is the
most important element. Speaker is the only active element who delivers the message as a
speech to an audience at a particular occasion and generates an effect, mostly a positive one.
The audience is the passive target audience who is expected to get influenced by the speech.
It is therefore, a one way flow of communication from the sender to the receiver.

The speaker prepares the speech according to the occasion and the target audience. The
speaker pre determines the desired effect and the speech is carefully drafted according to the
objectives of the speaker.

It is necessary to prepare the speech in a way that it is best understood and accepted by the
target audience. The speaker must keep in mind the selection of language, cultural beliefs,
needs and attitudes of the audience. The speech must be persuasive and influential. Aristotle
believed that ‘rhetoric’ is the study of communication and persuasion and it is necessary to
make different speeches at different occasions for different audience so that the best desired
effect is received.

It is interesting to note that the communication does generate an effect but does not facilitate
feedback and leaves the audience influenced without participating in the process. The model
was primarily used in public speaking and to create propaganda. It is also noteworthy that
even if audience does not provide feedback, the communication process focuses on the
receivers. The most basic example of this model is an election campaign, during which the
politician (speaker) addresses (speech) the people of his constituency (target audience) during
the elections (occasion) and wins support (effect). If the candidate wins the election, it is a
result of the influence and propaganda spread by delivering the speech.

According to Aristotle, it is important for a public speaker to possess the following three
elements:

a. Ethos: It is the personal character of the speaker. The speaker must have credible history
so that the audience can trust him. A corrupt politician cannot influence the people. Ethos is
also called an “appeal to ethic”. It is used as a way to convince or persuade the listeners.

b. Pathos: It is also referred to as “appeal to emotion” and is a way of persuading or

convincing the audience by establishing an emotional response to an “impassioned plea”.

c. Logos: It is also referred to as “appeal to logic” where the speaker uses fact and figures to
influence the audience. Logic and reason can convince people to believe in what is being
said.

Criticism of the Model

• There is no concept of feedback. The role and ability of
the receiver is undermined and ignored
• The model is only applicable to oral communication
and specifically to public speaking
• There is no mention of communication barriers

David Berlo’s SMCR Model

Source Messag Chann Receiv

Encodes Decodes
e el er

Communication Skills Content Hearing Communication Skills

Attitude Elements Seeing Attitude

Knowledge Treatment Touching Knowledge

Social System Structure Smelling Social System

Culture Code Tasting Culture
David Berlo developed a communication model in 1960 which proposed that five elements
within the sender and receiver will affect the process of communication. The model focuses
on the factors which affect the communicating agents and also emphasises on the encoding
and decoding of the messages.

Let us understand the relationship between the sender and the receiver from Berlo’s point of
view. He levies importance on the dyadic communication between the sender and the receiver
before emphasising on the relationship between the sender and the receiver. According to
him, if the communication skills of both sender and receiver are extremely good, the message
will be encoded and decoded effectively. He rightly points out, “A given source may have a
high level of skill not shared by one receiver, but shared by another. We cannot predict the
success of the source from her skill level alone.”

There are five factors which affect the Source namely, communication skills, knowledge,
attitude, social system and culture. The same set of factors affect the receiver too. Let us
understand them in detail.

a. Communication skills: According to Berlo, there are five verbal communication skills
involved. Out of them, speaking and writing are encoding skills and listening and reading are
decoding skills. The fifth skill, thought or reasoning play an important role in both encoding
and decoding. Berlo argues that communication skills of an encoder affect her/his ability to
analyse the purpose and intention, the ability to say something when she/he communicates ad
it also affects the ability to encode messages according to what is desired or intended. The
encoder must possess the ability to handle the language code because it gets difficult if the
“right word” is not found. The lack of ability to find the appropriate word can hamper
communication. It is also important to remember that the right word must not only satisfy the
encoder but must also communicate the same meaning to the receiver. Communication skills
involve “knowing and applying the code’s grammar, knowing and using a broad vocabulary,
knowing and applying the conventions, adapting the use of your code to your audience.”

b. Attitudes: it is necessary to have a positive attitude towards the “self”. The encoder’s
attitude towards herself/himself plays a big role in shaping the communication message.
Attitude towards the subject matter is also important. It the subject matter is of no interest to
the encoder, it will adversely affect the communication. Another important factor is attitude
towards the receiver. If the encoder values the receiver and considers the receiver smart,
she/he will use all the knowledge and skills to develop the communication message. These
factors are also applicable to the receiver.

c. Knowledge Level: The source’s communication is also affected by the knowledge level
she or he possesses. The encoder must have knowledge about her/his own attitudes, the way
she/he can produce or treat messages, the types of communication channels she/he can select,
and adequate information on the subject matter. The same factors are applicable for the
decoder.

a. d. Socio– cultural System: It is natural for people living in different socio-cultural

systems to communicate differently. The socio-cultural system allows the encoder to
partly determine the following:
i. The word choices
ii. The purpose of communication
iii. Meanings attached to specific words
iv. Their choice of receivers
v. Their choice of channels used to transfer the message

For example, a person who is strict and dominating will communicate differently with his
boss and his children. Sometimes, the inability to adjust his communication as appropriate to
both the positions could put him in trouble at work.

An encoder’s purpose of communicating also depends upon the role she/he is in, for example,
a woman as a mother will communicate differently than when she is the boss in the office.
Social positions also affect and alter communication. For example, teachers and customer
service agents are comfortable while communicating in comparison to a night watchman.
Cultural difference between the encoder and decoder will also affect the communication
process.

Berlo identifies three significant elements to explain “message” in the communication

process, namely, Code, Content and Treatment.

a. Code: It is the form in which the message is sent. A code can be in the form of a text,
video etc. the encoder must decide which code, what elements of the code, what methods of
structuring the elements of the code will be selected to construct the message.

b. Content: The message from beginning to the end is called content. It is the material
selected by the encoder to communicate her/his objective. Content has elements and
structure. The way an encoder arrange the content determines effectiveness of the message.

c. Treatment: It is how the encoder selects and arranges the code and content. When the
message is decoded, the communication skills, attitudes, knowledge level, socio-cultural
systems of the receiver will affect how she/he perceives the message. If the message is
perceived by the receiver the way the source has treated it, communication is successful.

The source then selects a channel to transfer the message. In mass communication, the source
can use channels like television, internet etc. however, according to Berlo’s communication
process, the five senses of a human being are the channels for transfer of message and the
selection also affects the effectiveness of the channel. The five channels of human
communication are as follows:
a. Hearing: The message is received through listening for example, a telephonic
conversation between sender and receiver.

b. Seeing: When the receiver decodes and perceives non- verbal messages through seeing.

c. Touching: When the sender and receiver exchange non-verbal messages through touch,
example, a hand shake or a hug.

d. Smelling: We the receiver collects information from smelling. For example, the peculiar
smell of a hospital can be easily identified or smell of the burnt food, communicates to the
receiver to take adequate action.

e. Tasting: The person at a restaurant can provide a feedback after tasting food cooked by the
chef.
Harold D. Lasswell

Harold D. Lasswell

Who? Says In Which To Whom? With What

(Sender) What? Channel? (Receiver) Effect?
(Message) (Medium)

Harold D. Lasswell was a political scientist who studied the American presidential elections
of 1948. He studied propaganda and analysed political campaigning and introduced a linear
model. The model is also known as the Action model. The model was published in an article
titled, The Structure and Function of Communication in Society” in 1948 and according to
the model, in the communication process, answers to five pertinent questions are sought. The
model suggests five components of a communication process. The process begins with
identifying who (the sender) is sending what (message) through what channel (medium) to
whom (receiver) with what effect (feedback).

Component Meaning Analysis

Who The Control Analysis
communicator/encoder/sender
Says What The Message Content Analysis
In Which The Medium Media Analysis
Channel
To Whom Receiver/decoder/audience of Audience Analysis
the message
With What The feedback from the Effect Analysis
Effect receiver to the sender

The control analysis allows the sender to have all the power to decide what has to be
communicated. The sender is the one who constructs the message and controls the
information which is being transferred. For example; Who is the owner of the newspaper?
What is the objective of the newspaper? What are the political affiliations? What is the
editorial policy? Does the newspaper face any legal constraint?
The Content Analysis is related to how the content is stereotyped or prepared as per the
interest and objective of the sender. For example, how the newspaper represents gender?
How are the marginalised sections portrayed and placed in the newspaper?

The media analysis is the selection of channel to communicate the message and the choice of
media selection lies with the sender and only those who have the access to the media can
receive the message.

The audience analysis reveals the target audience being manipulated by the sender for which
audience research is conducted.

The effect analysis is done before the process begins and it predicts the effects of the message
before the target audience is addressed.

Lasswell’s model is the traditional way of doing propaganda. It is a way to study media
effects. The model does not mention noise or barriers of communication; it also ignores
honest feedback as the effect is pre determined.

Shannon and Weaver Model

Claude Elwood Shannon, an American mathematician, electronic engineer and Warren

Weaver, an American scientist published an article titled, A Mathematical Theory of
Communication in a journal titled, Bell System Technical Journal in 1948. The two
developed what is popularly known as “Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication.”

The model aims are facilitating smooth communication between the sender and the receiver
by identifying factors that can hinder the process, such an obstacle is called “noise”. The
model was initially developed to improve telephonic communication and was later applied to
the field of communication.

The model proposed six elements of a communication process; a source, an encoder, a

message, a channel, a decoder, a receiver. The model was produced in 1949, one year after
Lasswell’s model of communication.

The duo gave importance to the transmission and reception of information. The model was a
linear model and ignored feedback in the communication process.

Information Transmitter Reception Destination

Source

S S
i Channel i
Sender Encoder g g
Decoder Receiver
n n
Messag a a Messag
e l l e

Noise
According to the model, the sender is the source of information or information source who
selects the channel and transfers the message. Encoder is the transmitter or a machine which
converts the messages into signal in the form of binary data. Channel is the medium used to
transmit the information. Decoder is the machine used to decode the information received and
the signal in the form of binary data is decoded. Receiver is the person who finally gets the
message. Noise is the disturbance that does not permit smooth communication between the
sender and the receiver.

According to Shannon and Weaver, there are three levels of problems of communication:

1. Technical: How the channel cause disturbance

2. Semantic: How the meaning is not interpreted correctly by the receiver

3. Effectiveness: How effective is the reaction from the receiver

Shannon and Weaver were the first ones to point out ‘Noise’ in the communication process. It
is extremely important to identify noise or disturbance for carrying out smooth
communication. The model is a two way flow of communication. It can be applied to
interpersonal communication primarily however, in the new media age, it is applicable to
group communication as well for example, a conference call, group chats on social media
platforms like Facebook, Twitter and WhatApp involves more than two participants. The
model was criticised for emphasising on a passive receiver as the sender plays a dominant
role in the process. Feedback is considered less important than the message sent by the
sender. According to Foulger, “the model isn’t really a model of communication; however, it
is instead, a model of the flow of information through a medium, and an incomplete and
biased model [to technical media]. The model suggests that communication within a medium
is frequently direct and unidirectional, but is the real world of media, communication is
almost never unidirectional and is often indirect.”

Wilbur Schramm’s Model of Communication

Wilbur Lang Schramm, a communication scholar is also known for being the ‘authority on
mass communications’ expanded the Shannon and Weaver’s communication model in 1954.
He emphasised on the process of encoding and decoding of the message. Schramm suggested
that communication is a two-circular process between the sender and the receiver. To the six
elements of communication introduced by Shannon and Weaver, Schramm included two
other elements, namely,

a. Feedback: It is the information which is sent back to the sender by the receiver. It signals
the effectiveness of the message and suggests whether the message was properly interpreted
by the receiver or not. Feedback plays a crucial role in determining the success of the
communication.
b. Field of experience: Schramm introduced an imaginary area which is a part of the
communicator’s mental and social construct. It contains the individual’s values, beliefs,
experiences and meanings. If the sender and the receiver do not share the common field of
experience, communication will not be successful.

According to Schramm, messages can be interpreted differently by different people thereby,

making the communication process difficult. The interpretation of the message plays key role
in determining how well it has been communication. The interpretation can be denotative or
connotative. Denotative meanings are literal meanings of the words being spoken and
connotative meanings are emotional or experiential attributions attached to the words.

To have a successful communication, it is important for the sender and receiver to share
common field of experience. Schramm believed that people make decisions based on the
information they receive about their society and environment.

Field of Experience Field of Experience

Source Encoder Signal Decoder Destination

Osgood and Schramm’s model of Communication

The process and effects of communication

According to the Osgood and Schramm model introduced in 1954, communication is not a
linear concept and very much functions on a circular pattern. The circular pattern suggests
that it is a back and forth transfer of information between the participants. The process lays
impetus on the concept of encoding and decoding. It suggests that both the sender and
receiver are at some point encoders and decoders. The message is not only encoded by the
sender, it is also encoded by the receiver. The feedback is encoded by the receiver and once
transferred to the sender, it is received and decoded. Schramm introduced the concept in his
book titled, The Process and Effects of Communication.

According to Schramm, “It is misleading to think of the communication process as starting

somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are switchboard centres handling
and rerouting the great endless current of information...”
Unlike the other mechanical models of communication which focus only on the transmission
of the message from the sender to the receiver, this model states the importance of
interpretation of the message. It is only when the message is interpreted by the receiver in the
same way as encoded by the sender, will the communication be termed as successful. The
model assesses communication as a two way flow of dyadic communication which involves
active role of interpreter played by each participant in the communication process. No
participant is tagged as the only ‘encoder’ or ‘decoder’. The participants will decode the
message on the basis of the communication skills and value system, set of beliefs and
attitude. The interpreted message will further be encoded in the form of non-verbal signs or
verbal texts.

This makes communication a circular process rather than a top down or bottom up approach.
However, the model does not mention semantic noise which can be encountered while
interpreting the message.

Message

Encoder Decoder

Interpreter Interpreter

Decode Message
Encoder
r

Dance Model

The Helical model of communication was introduced in 1967 by an American

communication professor, Frank E.X. Dance. It is popularly known as Dance’s model of
communication. The model is inspired by a helix which is a three dimensional spring like
curve in the shape of a cylinder or a cone. Dance compared the helix with human
communication. The process of communication is non-linear and evolutionary as the helix
grows bigger, so does human communication.

The bottom or starting of a helix is small and it gradually moves upward in a back and forth
circular motion and expands. Similarly, communication in the beginning is less and with
time, it grows based on past experiences of the individual. In the beginning of communication
between two people, the participants in the beginning share less information about
themselves. It is only gradually after spending time with each other and based on the
experience they have had, communication increases and evolves. Therefore, according to
Dance, communication is a dynamic process, which is ever-changing, never-ending and ever-
growing with time and past experiences. It is slow and less at the beginning and grows
upward with time.

The model suggests that the sender and receiver have interchangeable roles which make it a
dyadic process. The model considers intellect and speculation as important factors which
affect communication.

According to Mortensen, “As a heuristic device, the helix is interesting not so much for what
it says as for what it permits to be said. Hence, it exemplifies a point made earlier: It is
important to approach models in a spirit of speculation and intellectual play.”

Chapanis in 1961 mentioned the model is a “sophisticated play: the helix implies that
communication is continuous, unrepeatable, additive and accumulative: i.e., each phase of
activity depends upon present forces at work as they are defined by all that has occurred
before. All experience contributes to the shape of the unfolding moment: there is no break in
the action, no fixed beginning, no pure redundancy, no closure.”

Mortesnen also mentioned the limitations of the model. He argued, “It is not systematic or
formalised mode of representation. Neither does it formalise relationships or isolate key
variables. It describes in the abstract but does not explicitly explain or make particular
hypotheses testable. May not be a model at all: too few variables.”

Gate Keeping Model

Kurt Zadek Lewin, a German social psychologist, conceptualised the term Gate Keeping in
1943. The concept was developed for mass communication and dissemination of news by
David Manning White.

Gate Keeping is the process of “selection of information according to importance and

relevance. The information is also published according to the amount of importance the
media wants the information to have.” It is the gatekeeper who decides to filter information
and selects what needs to be transferred to the audience. Through this process, the unwanted,
irrelevant and prejudiced items are weeded out by the gatekeeper. For example, in a family
set up, a mother decides what is important for the children and what is not. Similarly, in the
news business, the editor plays the role of a gatekeeper who decides what news items to
publish and which ones to reject or discard.

N=Source of
News Items

N1 N1, N2, N3, N4=

News Items

N2

N M M=Audience
N3
N1, N4=Discarded
News Items
N4

N2, N3= Selected

N1 N4 News Items

Let us look at the above diagram,

N is the Source of news items received by the news organization (from the team of reporters)
who present N1, N2, N3 and N4 (different types of news items). The Editor selects the items
which he thinks is important or relevant (N2 and N3) and discards the items which are not
relevant or significant (N1 and N4). The selected items are disseminated to the audience (M).

The following factors affect Gate keeping:

a. Individual: The journalist who prepares the news report is the most important person who
has the power to decide what to include and what not to include. He is responsible for
developing the news report.

b. Routine: News media organizations also have certain themes and programme genres to
cater to. News reports will be developed according to the patterns being followed by the news
media organization.

c. Organization: Each news media organization follows a ‘style sheet’ which is a guidebook
or rulebook. All news reports which are published must adhere to the style sheet of the
organization. The rules and ethics of the organization will influence the gate keeping process.
Media organization may have its own propaganda or agenda to promote.

d. Extra Media: Business associations with sponsors, advertisers, investors will affect the
content which is being filtered out and the stories which are being disseminated. No
information which is against the sponsors or advertisers will be selected as it may create a
negative image.

e. Ideology: Mass media organization must value the ideology and cultural beliefs of the
society it is catering to. The norms, value system and beliefs must be well respected by the
media.

Limited space or time can affect the number of items selected for a specific news bulletin or a
newspaper edition. The fundamental function of a gatekeeper is surveillance; the editor keeps
a check on the information flow and determines what is most important for the organization
as well as the audience. Gate keeping also maintains the standard of news by selecting
newsworthy items. It is possible that the editor or the gatekeeper will bring changes to the
news item received by the reporter because of subjective perceptions. Media plays the role of
a watchdog of the society and must be responsible while deciding the news content. The
concept is used as a social control for media influence.

Criticism of Gate Keeping Model:

a. The concept suggests only one gate. However, there can be many gates controlling the
news flow.

b. Gatekeepers can be biased as they possess a specific way of thinking.

c. The priority of news items is set by the gatekeeper.

d. It can result in misinterpretation, misrepresentation and can turn out to be abuse of power.

e. In the new media age, Gate keeping is ineffective. Audience can impart and receive
information directly.

Newcomb’s ABX Model

Theodore M. Newcomb a pioneer in social psychology introduced a co-orientation model in

1953 known as the Newcomb’s model of communication which was published in the name of
An Approach to the Study of Communicative Acts.
The primary purpose of this model is to “introduce the role of communication in a social
relationship.” It also attempts to maintain social equilibrium within the social system.
According to the model, communication is the means of maintaining relationship between
people.

The model is represented in a triangle where A & B are communicators or participants in the
communication process and V is the topic of communication or point of orientation. If both A
& B agree with X, the social equilibrium is maintained. On the other hand, if A introduces a
policy and B disagrees with it, the social equilibrium will be disturbed. A will have to
convince B to accept the policy but if B continues to disagree, A will have to make changes
in the policy agreeable with B. Only then equilibrium will be maintained between A and B.

Let us take an example of a Company in which ‘A’ represents the Management, ‘B’
represents the workers and ‘X’ is the Pay Policy. If the policy proposed by ‘A’ is accepted by
‘B’, there will be equilibrium in the system. However, if ‘B’ is not happy with the pay policy
and they call a strike, the production will stop and the company will have to bear the losses.
‘A’ will try to convince ‘B’ to accept the policy on the pretext of including the proposed
changes in the next financial year. If ‘B’ agrees with the proposal, the workers will call off
the strike. On the other hand if ‘B’ continues to disagree, ‘A’ will have to change the pay
policy as desired by ‘B’. Once it is done, the workers will resume duty and equilibrium will
be established.

Newcomb identifies four fundamental components of this relational system:

a. A’s attitude toward X

b. A’s attraction to B

c. B’s attitude toward X

A B
d. B’s attraction to A

Gerbner’s Model of Communication

George Gerbner’s model represents the dynamic nature of human communication. Let us
understand the model given below by reading it from left to right.

Gerbner: E & Perpetual Dimension

E is the actual Event which takes place and is perceived by M, the Man or Machine. The
event is interpreted by M based on the perceptions, point of views and past experiences. The
attitudes, knowledge level, communication skills, culture and social system affects the
process of encoding and decoding of messages. E can be a person writing a letter or speaking
over the phone. In this case E is the sender or encoder. E can also be an accident, press
conference or natural disaster.

E draws the attention towards three factors which can affect the process of communication:

a. Selection: M selects information from the event on the basis of his judgement about what
is important and what is not. He gives more attention to aspects which according to his
perception, knowledge and beliefs are more important.

b. Context: It is an important factor which can affect the process of communication. The
context of communication changes the meaning and interpretation. Sometimes same
sounding words like dear and deer can be wrongly interpreted. It is vital to understand the
context in which communication is taking place.

c. Availability: The number of events (Es) and their availability will also affect how M will
perceive them. If there are too many events, the reporter will cover the once which according
to him are more significant.

Gerbner: E1 and M:

E1 is the perceived E (event) by M (man or machine). It is a result of M’s perceptions,

knowledge, ideology and beliefs. The real event E has now become E1 the perceived event.

Gerbner: Means and Controls

In the next phase of the model, M becomes the information source about E to someone else.
M gives a statement about the event (SE) to the other person. To transfer the message, M
selects a channel or media upon which he has some degree of control. The use of channel
depends upon the skill set of M. If M is adept with technology and can use internet to
communication the message, the same channel should be selected. Control also suggests
accessibility of the channel. M can only select the medium which is accessible to him. If M
does not have the access to Internet, he will have to select an alternative medium to send the
message.

Gerbner: SE

SE is the statement about event in which S stands for signal. If S is present without E, the
communication will be noisy. The process can be extended further by adding more receivers
(M2, M3...) who will add their perception (SE1, SE2..._ of the statements about the perceived
events. It makes communication a continuous process with multiple senders who share
multiple perceptions with multiple receivers who in turn become senders themselves. All this
depends upon the selection, context and availability of events and sender’s control over
media.
McQuail and Windahl in 1981 suggested that “the generality of the model makes it useful
both for the analysis of interpersonal and mass communication.” Gerbner’s model considers
the significance of socio-cultural context in communication.

Perpetual Dimension

M E
Selection
Context
E1 Event
Source Availability

Channels
Media
Control

Means and Control Dimension

Destination

M2 S E

Form
S
Content
E
Spiral of Silence Model

The Spiral of Silence theory of communication was introduced in 1974 by a German political
scientist, Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann. The purpose of the theory was to explain the process of
public opinion formation. According to Neolle-Neumann, spiral of silence as the process
experienced by an individual when, “he may find that the views he holds are losing ground;
the more this appears to be so, the more uncertain he will become of himself, and the less he
will be inclined to express his opinions.” The researcher call is the “quasi-statistical picture of
the distribution of opinions.” Mass media has a strong influence on shaping the individual’s
perceptions about the social environment he is living in. If the individual sees that the
prevalent opinion is different from his own perception, he is less likely to express his opinion.
The individual becomes less interested in voicing his own opinion. According to the theory,
“the tendency of the one to speak up and the other to be silent starts off a spiralling process
which increasingly establishes one’s opinion as the prevailing one.” Therefore, public
opinion is recognised by the people who wish to remain silence and the public generally
accepts the opinion which is being voiced.

The theory explains the relationship between minority and majority of people in a society and
how they choose to express themselves. It suggests that the minority people choose to keep
silent on their views on any subject as they fear consequences. For example, the Jews, who
did not support the idea of the World War II but chose to stay silent.

The theory is explained in a diagram as a spiral with two ends. The top-wide end is the view
of majority and the lower –shallowest part represents the views of the minority.

The author also acknowledges that the individual who has the opposing opinion will finally
feel isolated or experience “danger of isolation”. Such people will feel the risk of being
isolated from the majority. According to Tonnies, “Public opinion always claims to be
authoritative. It demands consent or at least compels silence, or abstention from
contradiction.”

The theory suggests that people remain silent because of the following two reasons:

a. Fear of isolation: It develops when the individual or a group realises that they have a
divergent opinion from the status quo.

b. Fear of reprisal: The individuals feel that voicing their opinion can bring severe negative
actions against them like, loss of job or status.

Noelle-Neumann concludes that when it comes to the spiral of silence, Mass media “provide
the environmental pressure to which people respond with alacrity (happiness), or with
acquiescence (consent) or with silence.”

The theory is criticised for considering only one factor for not speaking out, the “fear of
isolation”. It does not consider the influence of reference groups who have the potential to
provide an individual with bias views about the social environment. The centre of the theory
is to study the factors causing an individual to self censor and not self- censor. Scheufele in
2007 writes, that the question must shift and as, “Under what circumstances does the spiral of
silence work better, and what are the variables that can attenuate the relationships between
fear of isolation, perceptions of the opinion climate, and willingness to speak out.” The
theory also ignores the cultural influence which affects the willingness to expand the
communication.

Westley-MacLean’s model

Bruce Westley and Malcom S. MacLean Jr. introduced the Westley and Mclean’s model of
communication in 1957. The model can be applied to interpersonal as well as mass
communication. However, in interpersonal communication, feedback is quick and direct
whereas, in mass communication, feedback is indirect and delayed.

According to the authors, communication does not begin when an individual starts to speak.
It begins with the individual responding to selectively to his physical surroundings. It can be
said that the process of communication begins when message is received from the
surroundings and the individual reacts on the basis of his object of orientation.
Components of the model

fBA

X1
21

X2
X-Event
fCA A- Advocate
C- Media
X3 Organization/
Gatekeeper
A C B B- Audience
Xi Xii
f- Feedback
X4

X4C fBC

Xn

X3C

In the model, X stands for an event or object taking place in the social environment about
which mass media communicates so X1, X2, X3, X4…Xn are different events or objects (For
example, election results, environment disaster, price hike, and so on).

A is a purposive communicator and hence plays role of an ‘Advocate’ who because or her/his
position has something to say about X to the whole public. A can be a politician, news
source, advertiser etc. B represents the audience which can be an individual, group or even a
social system which has needs regarding information or orientation to an environment. C
represents the mass media organisations or the individuals working in it. C selects the A’s for
granting access to the channel reaching the audience. The selection is based on the criteria of
perceived relevance of A to the needs and interests of the audience B. C may also select
directly from the X’s for communicating to B (as depicted in the diagram above X3C and
X4C) for example an eyewitnesses account by a reporter. The role of C is to serve as an
agent to cater the needs of B as well as A.

Xi in the diagram represents the choice made by the mass media organisation/ communicator
(C) for access to the channel and Xii is the final message after modifications done by the
media organization that is finally received by B (the audience). fBA is the feedback from the
audience (B) to the original source (A). This might be in the form of for example purchase of
a good in response to an advertisement from (A) or a protest towards the price hike and so on.
fBC is the feedback from the audience to the mass media organisation/ communicator either
by direct contact or through an audience research method. This feedback guide selection of
future transmissions from C to B. fCA is the feedback from mass media
organisation/communicator to the advocate. This helps in encourage or rejecting the attempt
of purposive communication by A.

The importance of this model can be understood from the following distinctive aspects of the
mass communication process highlighted by it:

1. The model highlights several stages of selection in the process of mass

communication like selection of the aspects of an event or the environment by
‘advocates’ who might be experts or genuine opinion leaders; selection made amongst
the advocates by the media organisation; selection made from the events or objects of
the real world directly by the mass media organisations/ communicators; selection
made from the available messages to be transmitted by the mass media.
2. The model highlights the self-regulating character of the mass media organisations.
The aim of the mass media is to guarantee that the needs of the audience (B) are met
by providing the relevant messages. Since there is a competition between various
mass media organisations for attracting audience, this should ensure that complete or
sufficient facts/ reality are conveyed to the audience.
3. The model clearly demarcates purposive and non-purposive communication both of
which take place in the mass communication process. As mentioned in the model
itself, A is purposive communicator and hence attains the role of an advocate in
situations where A communicates anything non-purposive about an event X, the A
simply becomes another X.
4. This model highlights the importance of feedback from the audience to either the
mass media or the advocates. Feedback ensures the systematic character of
relationship between all the participants.
5. The model also in a way highlights that the link between X or A & B are not
monopolized by one C. Audience may have other direct links with A (for example
through membership of an organisation) and may directly experience X (e.g. change
in climate, watching a cricket match in stadium, price hike etc).

Dependency Model of Mass Communication

The dependency Model or Media systems dependency theory was introduced by Sandra Ball
Rokeach and Melvin D. Fleur in the year 1976. The theory studies the interrelations of larger
social systems, mass media and the individual as a result of effect of mass media.

The concept is based on the simple assumption that the more an individual depends upon
mass media to fulfil her/his needs; the dependency on media will grow making it more
important in the person’s life. The theory suggests that in a modern society, media is
considered as an essential ‘information system’ required for the maintenance, change and
conflict processes at the societal, group or individual levels of social action. The theory
emphasizes that in such a society, individuals heavily depend on mass media information for
knowing what is happening in their own society. The theorists highlight two conditions to
understand the variation in nature and degree of dependency on media:

1. The degree of change, conflict or instability present in a society

2. The degree to which the media are considered as an important and main source of
information in a society.
Rockeach and D. Fleur define dependency as ‘a relationship in which the satisfaction of
needs or the attainment of goals by one party is contingent upon the resources of another
party.’ There are number of ways in which individuals are dependent on media to satisfy
information needs. For example, one form of dependency is based on the need to comprehend
one’s social system/ world. Another type of dependency surfaces from the need to contribute
meaningfully and effectively in the social system or to be of social utility and a third type of
dependency is based on the need for fantasy- escape from tensions and daily problems. The
greater the need, the greater will be the dependency in such cases. This concept is also called
an ‘ecological model’ which represents a complex web of links between the media and the
public at large.

The basic proposition of the dependency model can be briefly states as follows:

When media system acts as central and unique information source, there is a broad range of
cognitive, affective and behavioural effects that are brought about by the mass media
messages. The proponents of this model also highlight the fact that these cognitive, affective
and behavioural alterations or effects can in turn feedback to change the society and the
media. This is what explains the interrelationship of the media, society and the individual.
 Societal Systems Media System
(Number and centrality of
(Degree of structural information function
stabilities varies) varies)

Audiences

(Degree of dependency on media information

varies)

Effects

Cognitive
Affective
Behavioural
The Dependency State

The model illustrates the three main elements-media, society and audience to be interrelated.
The nature of the relationship however, can differ from society to society and variation in
every element can produce different effects on the audience. For example, some societies
have complete control over the media while others have free and powerful which is capable
of influencing societies independently. The relationship between media and audience can also
vary from sometimes say media simply reflects and follows the newsmakers and the issues of
the society and on the other occasion media might play a leading role by controlling what is
to be presented to the audiences.

Other variations can be described as:

• Variation of social system according to the degree of stability. The social system can be
completely stable, partially stable like a system with periodic crises or it may be weak and
undergo constant changes and uncertainty like in most developing countries or even worst it
may be in a state of total breakdown (under war or economic crisis). The more a society
undergoes change or crises the more its need for information and orientation hence more
dependent on whatever information sources are available.

• The variation in media system can be in the form of whether media system is more or less
developed whether there is diverse or not and whether the media system can address the
needs of the social system and the audience. If the media system is more developed, diverse
and capable of addressing the needs of social system and the audiences, the more it is likely
to be essential to society and more audiences will depend on it. However, if there are
alternative resources provided by informal networks or by communications from outside the
society, in that case audience dependency on media system will be lower.

• The dependency of audience on the media will also vary internally as societies have
different social compositions and hence internal differences are bound to be there. For
instance, elite social groups and ‘haves’ in the community are likely to have access to
alternative channels of information compared to minority groups or ‘have not’s.’