Introduction

1
 Contents
 Introduction
 Metal Vs Ceramic
 Structure
 Properties of Ceramics
 General Comparison of Materials
 Classification
 Ceramic Processing
 Powder Preparation

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 Introduction

The word ‘ceramic’ is originated from Greek word keramikos, which means
‘burnt stuff ’.
Keramos is a Greek word meaning potter or pottery, anything made of clay.
 Introduction
 Ceramics are compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements.
 To be most frequently silicates, oxides, nitrides and carbides, Typically insulative to
the passage of electricity and heat, More resistant to high temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and polymers, Hard but very brittle.
 Introduction
 Ceramics are usually:
(i) poor conductors of heat and electricity, hence used thermal and electrical insulators,
(ii) strong and hard wearing, but brittle,
(iii) high melting points - so thermally very stable,
(iv) they don't corrode or degrade when exposed to the weather like metals do.
Most of the glass we use is relatively cheap soda-lime glass, made by heating a mixture of sand,
sodium carbonate and limestone. Many ceramic materials are made from clay, a softish material
dug out of the ground.
 Known for their brittle properties, ceramics are hard, strong in compression, and weak in
shearing and tension. They also withstand chemical erosion and high temperatures.
Ceramics are a part of our everyday lives without realizing it; we are surrounded by them from
domestic and industrial building products, tableware, and art all the way up to medical devices
and microchips.
 Specific mechanical, electrical, and optical properties can be found in ceramic materials.
 The mechanical properties mainly focus on material strengths such as elasticity, tensile
strength, compressive strength, shear strength, fracture toughness and ductility (low in brittle
materials), and indentation hardness.
 Electrical properties involve semiconductor, superconductivity, ferroelectricity and supersets,
and a positive thermal coefficient.
 Optical properties focus mainly on optical filters and guided wavelengths, helping to develop
fiber optic, night-vision, military, LED (Light Emitting Diode), and various other
technologies.
Introduction
 Metal Vs Ceramic
 Metals are ductile, ceramics are brittle.
 Metals tend to have lower electrical resistivity than ceramics.
 Metals are made of metallic elements, or compounds, alloys or mixtures of metallic
elements with other materials; whereas ceramics are mixtures of glass, essentially
and other materials.
 Metals tend to be much stronger in tension than ceramics.
 Most metals are crystalline at the microscopic level, most ceramics are not.
 Metals tend to be more chemically reactive than ceramics
 Metals are malleable, ceramics are not
 Metals conduct heat, ceramics are insulators
 Metals generally melt at lower temperatures than ceramics
 Metals are generally chemically reactive, ceramics are not.
 Pure metals are elements, ceramics are not. Ceramics are typically compounds
consisting of metals covalently bonded to oxygen, nitrogen or carbon.
 Metal Vs Ceramic
Properties Metals Ceramics
Hardness - strength - rigidity - usually strong and fairly rigid, but may very hard and rigid, not flexible, but brittle
brittleness need alloying with other metals to and easily shatter when struck
make them stronger, not brittle
Examples of relative tensile mild steel 250, high tensile steel 340, brittle!
strength pure aluminium 60-120, strong
aluminium alloy 240-400
Examples of density (kg/m3) moderate to high: steels ~7700, pure moderate: bricks 1300-2000, glass typically
÷ 1000 = g/cm3 aluminium 2700, alloyed aluminium 2180-2530, earthenware and china 2500-
2800, titanium alloys ~4500 2800
Heat related properties usually high melting point high melting point
Thermal (heat conductivity) very good thermal conductors good thermal insulator
Electrical conductivity very good thermal conductors good electrical insulator
Malleability, ductility, can it be malleable (easily pressed or beaten wet clay can be moulded before firing in a
moulded into shape), ductile (easily drawn out furnace, but not afterwards!
into wire)
Durability to the environment may need protection from corrosion bricks are porous to water, but glass is not
which is relatively cheap low carbon porous and water-proof
steel, aluminium has natural
protective oxide layer, non-porous,
 Metal Vs Ceramic
Clays consist of fine particles of hydrous aluminum silicate
 Most common clays are based on the mineral kaolinite, (Al2O3, 2SiO2, 2H2O)
 When mixed with water, clay becomes a plastic substance that is formable and moldable
 When heated to a sufficiently elevated temperature (firing ), clay fuses into a dense, strong
material
 Thus, clay can be shaped while wet and soft, and then fired to obtain the final hard
product
 Structure
 Ceramics that are predominantly ionic in nature have crystal structures comprised
of charged ions, where positively-charged (metal) ions are called cations, and
negatively-charged (non-metal) ions are called anions – the crystal structure for a
given ceramic depends upon two characteristics:
1. The magnitude of electrical charge on each component ion, recognizing that the
overall structure must be electrically neutral.
2. The relative size of the cation(s) and anion(s),which determines the type of
interstitial site(s) for the cation(s) in an anion lattice

Rock salt Fluorite

Perovskite
structure(AX) structure(AX2) Spinel
structure(ABX3)
(NaCl ) (CaF2) structure(AB2O4)
(BaTiO3)
(MgAl2O4)
 Properties of Ceramics
 Extreme hardness
– High wear resistance
– Extreme hardness can reduce wear caused by friction
 Corrosion resistance
 Heat resistance
– Low electrical conductivity
– Low thermal conductivity
– Low thermal expansion
– Poor thermal shock resistance
 Low ductility
– Very brittle
– High elastic modulus
 Low toughness
– Low fracture toughness
– Indicates the ability of a crack or flaw to produce a catastrophic failure
 Low density
– Porosity affects properties
 High strength at elevated temperatures
 High temperature stability
 General Comparison of Materials
Property Ceramic Metal Polymer

Hardness Very High Low Very Low

Elastic modulus Very High High Low

Thermal expansion High Low Very Low

Wear resistance High Low Low

Corrosion resistance High Low Low

Ductility Low High High

Density Low High Very Low

Electrical conductivity Depends High Low

on material

Thermal conductivity Depends High Low

on material

Magnetic Depends High Very Low

on material
 Classification
 Ceramics are classified in many ways. It is due to divergence in composition,
properties and applications.
 Based on their composition, ceramics are
- Oxides (SiO2, Al2O3)
- Carbides (SiC, B4C)
- Nitrides (BN, AlN)
- Sulfides (CaS, FeS)
- Fluorides (CaF2)
- Silicate (Porcelain, Mullite)
 Based on their specific applications, ceramics are classified as:
- Glasses, Glass ceramics
- Clay products, White wares
- Refractories
- Abrasives (Sand paper, cutting, polishing)
- Cements (Composite, structural)
- Advanced ceramics (Valves, bearing, sensors, rotors, etc.)
 Based on their engineering applications, ceramics are classified into two
groups as:
- Traditional ceramics – most made-up of clay, silica and feldspar
- Engineering ceramics – these consist of highly purified aluminium oxide (Al2O3),
silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon nitiride (Si3N4).
Classification
Classification
 Classification
 Advanced Materials
Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes termed
advanced materials. By high technology we mean a device or product that operates or functions
using relatively intricate and sophisticated principles; examples include electronic equipment
(camcorders, CD/DVD players, etc.), computers, fiber-optic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and
military rocketry.
 Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical
conductors (viz. metals and metal alloys) and insulators (viz. ceramics and polymers).
Semiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally
revolutionized the electronics and computer industries.
Biomaterials
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for replacement of
diseased or damaged body parts. These materials must not produce toxic substances and must
be compatible with body tissues.
 Smart Materials
Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being
developed that will have a significant influence on many of our technologies. The adjective
“smart” implies that these materials are able to sense changes in their environments and then
respond to these changes in predetermined manners—traits that are also found in living
organisms. In addition, this “smart” concept is being extended to rather sophisticated systems
that consist of both smart and traditional materials.
 Classification
Smart Materials
one type of smart system is used in helicopters to reduce aerodynamic cockpit noise that is
created by the rotating rotor blades. Piezoelectric sensors inserted into the blades monitor blade
stresses and deformations; feedback signals from these sensors are fed into a computer-
controlled adaptive device, which generates noise-canceling antinoise.
 Nuclear fuels based on uranium oxide (UO2 ).
 Classification
Traditional Ceramics
the older and more generally known types (porcelain, brick,
earthenware, etc.)
Based primarily on natural raw materials of clay and silicates
Applications;
building materials (brick, clay pipe, glass)
household goods (pottery, cooking ware)
manufacturing ( abbrasives, electrical devices, fibers)
Advanced Ceramics
have been developed over the past half century
Include artificial raw materials, exhibit specialized properties,
require more sophisticated processing
Applied as thermal barrier coatings to protect metal
structures, wearing surfaces,
Engine applications (silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon carbide
(SiC), Zirconia (ZrO2), Alumina (Al2O3))
 Classification
Oxide Ceramics:
Non-Oxide Ceramics: Silicon nitride:
Oxidation resistant components for gas
Low oxidation resistance turbines, rocket
chemically inert engines, and melting
extreme hardness crucibles
electrically insulating Boron nitride and
chemically inert titanium nitride:
generally low thermal conductivity cutting tool material
high thermal conductivity and coatings
slightly complex manufacturing
electrically conducting
low cost for alumina
difficult energy dependent manufacturing and
more complex manufacturing
high cost.
higher cost for zirconia.

Zirconia Ceramics Silicon carbide cermic foam filter (CFS)

 Classification
Ceramic-Based Composites:
Toughness
low and high oxidation resistance (type
related)
variable thermal and electrical
conductivity
complex manufacturing processes
high cost.

Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) rotor

 Classification
Amorphous Crystalline

 the atoms exhibit only short-range  atoms (or ions) are arranged in a regularly
order repeating pattern in three dimensions (i.e.,
they have long-range order)
 no distinct melting temperature (Tm)
for these materials as there is with the  Crystalline ceramics are the “Engineering”
ceramics
crystalline materials
– High melting points
 Na2O, CaO, K2O, etc
– Strong
– Hard
– Brittle
– Good corrosion resistance

a ceramic
(crystalline)
and a glass
(non-
crystalline)
atoms have long atoms have short
Amorphous silicon and thin film PV cells range periodic order range order only
Ceramic Processing
 Ceramic Processing
 Most of the ceramic products are manufactured through powder processing.
 Traditional forms of ceramic processing include pressing, plastic forming, slip and
tape casting, followed by sintering or firing. Typical ceramic processing route is as
follows
 Ceramic Processing
 “Surfactant” is “Surface Active Agents.” Surfactants are materials that lower the surface tension (or
interfacial tension) between two liquids or between a liquid and a solid. In the general sense, any material
that affects the interfacial surface tension, can be considered a surfactant, but in the practical sense,
surfactants may act as wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents, and dispersants.
 Surfactants are usually organic compounds that are amphiphilic, meaning they contain
both hydrophobic groups (their tails) and hydrophilic groups (their heads).
Anionic: sulfate, sulfonate, and phosphate, carboxylate derivatives
Anionic surfactants contain anionic functional groups at their head, such as sulfate, sulfonate, phosphate,
and carboxylates. Prominent alkyl sulfates include ammonium lauryl sulfate, sodium lauryl sulfate (sodium dodecyl sulfate,
SLS, or SDS), and the related alkyl-ether sulfates sodium laureth sulfate (sodium lauryl ether sulfate or SLES), and sodium
myreth sulfate.
Others include:
Docusate (dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate), Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), Perfluorobutanesulfonate
Alkyl-aryl ether phosphates, Alkyl ether phosphates
Carboxylates are the most common surfactants and comprise the carboxylate salts (soaps), such as sodium stearate. More
specialized species include sodium lauroyl sarcosinate and carboxylate-based fluorosurfactants such
as perfluorononanoate, perfluorooctanoate (PFOA or PFO).

Cationic head groups

pH-dependent primary, secondary, or tertiary amines; primary and secondary amines become positively charged at pH <
10:[29] octenidine dihydrochloride.
Permanently charged quaternary ammonium salts: cetrimonium bromide (CTAB), cetylpyridinium
chloride (CPC), benzalkonium chloride (BAC), benzethonium chloride (BZT), dimethyldioctadecylammonium chloride,
and dioctadecyldimethylammonium bromide (DODAB).
 Ceramic Processing
 Deflocculant is an agent that causes deflocculation specifically : a chemical (as sodium carbonate)
added to a clay slip to minimize settling out. There are suspensions that can be
either flocculated or deflocculated. The main difference between flocculated and
deflocculated suspension is that the rate of sedimentation in a flocculated suspension is rapid
whereas the rate of sedimentation in a deflocculated suspension is slow.
 A dispersant or a dispersing agent is a substance, typically a surfactant, that is added to a
suspension of solid or liquid particles in a liquid (such as a colloid or emulsion) to improve the
separation of the particles and to prevent their settling or clumping. Sodium pyrophosphate,
Poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), Ammonium citrate, Poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA), Sodium citrate,
Ammonium polyacrylate, Sodium tartrate, Sodium polyacrylate
 The key difference between dispersant and surfactant is that the dispersant improves the
separation of particles in a suspension whereas the surfactant is a substance that can lower the
surface tension between two phases of matter. A dispersant is a form of surfactant. But
all surfactants are not dispersants.
 A plasticizer is a substance that is added to a material to make it softer and more flexible, to
increase its plasticity, to decrease its viscosity, or to decrease friction during its handling in
manufacture.
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA), Dimethyl adipate (DMAD), Monomethyl adipate (MMAD),
Dioctyl adipate (DOA), Dibutyl sebacate (DBS), Dibutyl maleate (DBM), Diisobutyl maleate (DIBM)
 Binders are substances that improve the mechanical strength of green ceramic bodies so they can
pass through production steps, before firing, without breakage. Natural products, like cellulose or
clays, and synthetic products, like polyacrylates or polyvinyl alcohol.
Ceramic Processing

Surface tension is
the tendency
of liquid surfaces to
shrink into the
minimum surface
area possible.
Ceramic Processing

Approximat
Characterist
Type of e Size of
ic Examples
Mixture Particles
Properties
(nm)
not filterable;
does not
air, white
separate on
wine,
solution <2 standing;
gasoline, salt
does not
water
scatter visible
light
scatters
visible light;
translucent or
smoke, fog,
opaque; not
colloid 2–500 ink, milk,
filterable;
butter, cheese
does not
separate on
standing
cloudy or
opaque; muddy water,
suspension 500–1000 filterable; hot cocoa,
separates on blood, paint
standing
Ceramic Processing
 Ceramic Processing
Melting Decomposition
Melting point is the temperature at which Decomposition is the natural process of
solid and liquid coexist at equilibrium. To breaking down the organic substances into
simply put, it measures the temperature at simpler organic matter
which a solid melts.
Melting point is often used to predict the When bonds in a single chemical compound
partition behavior of a chemical between solid are broken, it results in it breaking apart to
and gas phases. A higher melting point form two or more products. When this
indicates greater intermolecular forces and happens, it is known as chemical
therefore less vapour pressure. decomposition and it takes place as a chemical
reaction
Measure through Dilatometer Measure through DTA/DSC
Breaking Intermolecular bonds Breaking Intramolecular bonds

Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms together within a molecule.
Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules.
 Ceramic Processing
 Ceramic products that use naturally occurring rocks and minerals as a starting
material must undergo special processing in order to control purity, particle size,
particle size distribution, and heterogeneity.
 These attributes play a big role in the final properties of the finished ceramic.
 Chemically prepared powders also are used as starting materials for some ceramic
products. These synthetic materials can be controlled to produce powders with precise
chemical compositions and particle size.
 The higher performance of ceramics is the result of strict control of purity,
composition, microstructure and processing.
 The characteristics and condition of the starting raw powders and the manner in
which they are treated prior to sintering affect the final outcome of these techniques.
 Characteristics of powders include: particle size, shape, size distribution, degree of
segregation and agglomeration.
 Finer and homogeneous particles are preferred.
 Factors affecting the final properties:
• Composition of powders
• Particle size, shape and distribution
• Green density
• Pore content (size, shape and distribution)
• Extent of mixing (multi-component ceramics)
 Powder Preparation
 Powder preparation is a most important step among the processing steps in
ceramics.
 Methods for fine ceramic powders (Top-down and Bottom-up Approaches)
 Powder Preparation
 Mechanical methods are generally used to prepare powders of traditional
ceramics from naturally occurring raw materials.
Powder preparation by mechanical methods is a fairly mature area of
ceramic processing in which the scope for new developments is rather small.
However, in recent years, the preparation of fine powders of some
advanced ceramics by mechanical methods involving milling at high speeds
has received a fair amount of interest.
 Chemical methods are generally used to prepare powders of advanced ceramics
from synthetic materials or from naturally occurring raw materials that have undergone
a considerable degree of chemical refinement.
Some of the methods categorized as chemical involve a mechanical milling
step as part of the process.
The milling step is usually necessary for the breakdown of agglomerates
and for the production of the desired physical characteristics of the powder
such as average particle size and particle size distribution.
Powder preparation by chemical methods is an area of ceramic processing
that has seen several new developments in the past 25 years and further new
developments are expected in the future.
 Powder Preparation
For convenience, we will consider the methods in three fairly broad categories :( 1) solid-state
reactions, (2) synthesis from liquid solutions, and (3) vapor-phase reactions
 Powder Preparation

 The characteristics of the powder depend strongly on the

method used to synthesize it, and these, in turn, influence
the subsequent processing of the ceramic.
Some of the chemical methods, while often more
expensive than the mechanical methods, offer
unprecedented control of the powder characteristics.

A chemically synthesized
powder consisting of
spherical particles of
approximately the same
size.