UNIT-1.

INTERNET FUNDAMENTALS

INTERNET
The internet is the wider network that allows computer networks around
the world run by companies, governments, universities and other
organisations to talk to one another. The result is a mass of cables,
computers, data centres, routers, servers, repeaters, satellites and wi-fi
towers that allows digital information to travel around the world.

INTERNET PROTOCOL AND STANDARDIZATION

Many of the protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite have been
standardized or are in the process of standardization. By universal
agreement, an organization known as the Internet Society is responsible for
the development and publication of these standards. The Internet Society is
a professional membership organization that oversees a number of
boards and task forces involved in Internet development and standardization.
Three organizations under the Internet Society are responsible for the actual
work of standards development and publication:

• Internet Architecture Board (IAB): Responsible for defining

the overall architecture of the Internet, providing guidance and
broad direction to the IETF. • Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF): The protocol engineering and development arm of the
Internet.
• Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG): Responsible
for technical management of IETF activities and the Internet
standards process.

The actual development of new standards and protocols for the Internet is
carried out by working groups chartered by the IETF. Membership in a
working group is voluntary; any
interested party can participate. During the development of a specification, a
working group will make a draft version of the document available as an
Internet Draft, which is placed in the IETF's "Internet-Drafts" online directory.
The document may remain as an Internet Draft for up to six months, and
interested parties can review and comment on the draft. During that time, the
IESG may approve publication of the draft as an RFC (Request for Comment).
If the draft has not progressed to the status of an RFC during the six-month
period, it is withdrawn from the directory. The working group may
subsequently publish a revised version of the draft.

The IETF is responsible for publishing the RFCs, with approval of the IESG.
The RFCs are the working notes of the Internet research and development
community. A document in this series may cover essentially any topic
related to computer communications and may be anything from a meeting
report to the specification of a standard.

The work of the IETF is divided into eight areas, each with an area director
and composed of numerous working groups:

• General: IETF processes and procedures. An example is the process for

development of Internet standards.
• Applications: Internet applications. Examples include Web-related
protocols, EDI Internet integration, LDAP.
• Internet: Internet infrastructure. Examples include IPv6, PPP
extensions. • Operations and management: Standards and
definitions for network operations. Examples include SNMPv3,
remote network monitoring.
• Routing: Protocols and management for routing information.
Examples include multicast routing, OSPF.
• Security: Security protocols and technologies. Examples include
Kerberos, IPSec, X.509, S/MIME, TLS.
• Transport: Transport layer protocols. Examples include differentiated
services, IP telephony, NFS, RSVP.
• User services: Methods to improve the quality of information available to
users of the Internet,. Examples include responsible use of the Internet,
user services, FYI documents.
The decision of which RFCs become Internet standards is made by the IESG,
on the recommendation of the IETF. To become a standard, a specification
must meet the following criteria:

• Be stable and well understood

• Be technically competent
• Have multiple, independent, and interoperable implementations with
substantial operational experience
• Enjoy significant public support

• Be recognizably useful in some or all parts of the Internet

ROLES OF ISP

ISP is an acronym that stands for Internet Service Provider. An Internet

Service Provider is a company that provides Internet access to organizations
and home users.

An ISP provides you with Internet access, usually for a fee. Without an ISP,
you wouldn’t be able to shop online, access Facebook, or read this page.
Connecting to the Internet requires specific telecommunications, networking,
and routing equipment. ISPs allow users access to networks that contain the
required equipment, enabling users to establish Internet connectivity.

ISPs are responsible for making sure you can access the Internet, routing
Internet traffic, resolving domain names, and maintaining the network
infrastructure that makes Internet access possible.

While the core function of an ISP is to provide Internet access, many ISPs
do much more. ISPs also offer services like web hosting, domain name
registration, and email services.

FACTORS FOR CHOOSING ISP

Availability

Unfortunately, this is the biggest deciding factor in rural areas. A high-

speed cable or fiber connection doesn’t do your business any good if the
provider doesn’t service your area. A surprising number of businesses and
homeowners have just a few options, usually one of which is a satellite
internet option and either some type of broadband (AT&T U-Verse,
Comcast Xfinity, etc) or 4G-LTE network (which can be surprisingly
good with the right equipment and plan).

Speed

As a business, you must ensure that you have sufficient speed to not disrupt
daily use, even when demand is at its highest. To some customers, speed is
the most important factor when determining an ISP. They simply want the
fastest internet they can get in their area. This is
completely based on location and what’s offered to you as a business or
consumer. The number you are looking at when comparing plans is called
the “Bandwidth”. Bandwidth is simply the volume of information per unit
of time that the transmission medium can sustain. Some customers get lucky
and have access to fiber connections with of over 1000 Megabits (Mbps)
per second while some rural businesses are stuck on 3 to 6Mbps DSL
connections. Also, just because the speed is advertised, doesn’t mean that’s
the speed you’ll be receiving. It’s definitely worth checking with
neighbouring businesses to see what kind of speed you can realistically
expect.

Cost

In order for an ISP to make sense for you, it needs to have a good balance
between speed and price. For example, if you’re running a small business out
of your home, $1000 a month for a dedicated fiber connection probably
won’t make sense for you. To some companies, the price doesn’t matter as
much as the speed & reliability. The same $1000-a-month dedicated fiber
connection mentioned above might be a no-brainer for a growing small
business with 25 employees. As with most aspects of businesses, you’ll
need to weigh the pros and cons.

INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER IN INDIA

• BSNL.
• MTNL. ...
• Bharti Airtel. ...
• Hathway Cable. ...
• Tata Communications. ...
• You Telecom. ...
• Reliance Communications. ...
• Sify Broadband.

TYPES OF CONNECTIVITY
There are many ways a personal electronic device can connect to the internet.
They all use different hardware and each has a range of connection speeds.
As technology changes, faster internet connections are needed to handle
those changes.
Dial-Up

Dial-up access is cheap but slow. A modem (internal or external) connects to

the Internet after the computer dials a phone number. This analog signal is
converted to digital via the modem and sent over a land-line serviced by a
public telephone network. Telephone lines are variable in quality and the
connection can be poor at times. The lines regularly experience interference
and this affects the speed, anywhere from 28K to 56K. Since a computer or
other device shares the same line as the telephone, they can’t be active at the
same time.

Leased

Leased connection is also known as direct Internet access or Level Three

connection. It is the secure, dedicated and most expensive, level of Internet
connection. With leased connection, your computer is dedicatedly and
directly connected to the Internet using high speed transmission lines. It is
on-line twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week.

VSAT

Short for very small aperture terminal, an earthbound station used in satellite
communications of data, voice and video signals, excluding broadcast
television. A VSAT consists of two parts, a transceiver that is placed outdoors
in direct line of sight to the satellite and a device that is placed indoors to
interface the transceiver with the end user’s communications device, such as a
PC. The transceiver receives or sends a signal to a satellite transponder in the
sky. The satellite sends and receives signals from a ground station computer
that acts as a hub for the system. Each end user is interconnected with the hub
station via the satellite, forming a star topology. The hub controls the entire
operation of the network. For one end user to communicate with another, each
transmission has to first go to the hub station that then retransmits it via the
satellite to the other end user’s VSAT.

Advantages

Satellite communication systems have some advantages that can be

exploited for the provision of connectivity. These are:

• Costs Insensitive to Distance

• Single Platform service delivery (one-stop-shop)

• Flexibility

• Upgrade-able

• Low incremental costs per unit

Disadvantages

However like all systems there are disadvantages also. Some of these are

• High start-up costs (hubs and basic elements must be in place before
the services can be provided)

• Higher than normal risk profiles

• Severe regulatory restrictions imposed by countries that prevent

VSAT networks and solutions from reaching critical mass and
therefore profitability

• Some service quality limitations such the high signal

delays (latency) • Natural availability limits that
cannot be mitigated against
• Lack of skills required in the developing world to design,
install and maintain satellite communication systems
adequately .

PROPERTIES OF INTERNET
 1. its global nature;
2. interactivity;
3. its potential to shift the balance of power in the offline world;
4. accessibility;
5. anonymity;
6. its facilitation of republication;
7. the prominence of intermediaries;
8. its reliance on hyperlinks/hypertext;
9. its long-term impact — the use of permanent archives;
10. its multimedia character; and
11. it’s temporal indeterminacy.

INTERNET ARCHITECTURE

The Internet architecture is based on a simple idea: ask all networks

want to be part of carrying a single packet type, a specific format the IP
protocol. In addition, this IP packet must carry an address defined with
sufficient generality in order to identify each computer and terminals
scattered throughout the world. This architecture is illustrated in Figure.

The user who wishes to make on this internetwork must store its data in IP
packets that are delivered to the first network to cross. This first network
encapsulates the IP packet in its own packet structure, the package A, which
circulates in this form until an exit door, where it is decapsulated so as to
retrieve the IP packet. The IP address is examined to locate, thanks to a
routing algorithm, the next network to cross, and so on until arriving at
the destination terminal.

To complete the IP, the US Defence added the TCP protocol; specify the
nature of the interface with the user. This protocol further determines how to
transform a stream of bytes in an IP packet, while ensuring quality of
transport this IP packet. Both protocols, assembled under the TCP / IP
abbreviation, are in the form of a layered architecture. They correspond to the
packet level and message-level reference model.

The Internet model is completed with a third layer, called the application
level, which includes different protocols on which to build Internet
services. Email (SMTP), the file transfer (FTP), the transfer of
hypermedia pages, transfer of distributed databases (World Wide Web),
etc., are some of these services. Figure shows the three layers of the
Internet architecture.

IP packets are independent of each other and are individually routed in the
network by interconnecting devices subnets, routers. The quality of
service offered by IP is very small and offers no detection of lost or
possibility of error recovery packages.

TCP combines the functionality of message-level reference model. This is a

fairly complex protocol, which has many options for solving all packet loss
problems in the lower levels. In particular, a lost fragment can be recovered
by retransmission on the stream of bytes. TCP uses a connection-oriented
mode.

The flexibility of the Internet architecture can sometimes be a default, to the

extent that global optimization of the network is carried out by sub-network
subnet, by a succession of local optimizations. This does not allow a
homogeneous function in different subnets traversed.
Another important feature of this architecture is to place the entire control
system, that is to say, intelligence and control of the network, in the terminal
machine leaving virtually nothing in the network, at least in the current
version, IPv4, the IP protocol. The control intelligence is in the TCP software
on the PC connected to the network.
It is the TCP protocol which takes care of sending more or fewer packets
according to network load. Precise control window the maximum number of
unacknowledged fragments that may be issued. The TCP window control
increases or decreases the traffic following the time required to complete a
round trip. Over this time increases, Considering the more congested network,
and the transmission rate must decrease to counter saturation. In return, the
infrastructure cost is extremely low; no intelligence is not in the network. The
service provided by the network of networks corresponds to a quality called
best effort, which means that the network does its best to carry the traffic. In
other words, the service quality is not assured.

TCP/IP INTERNET LAYERING MODEL

• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

• The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer,
transport layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
• The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first
four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in
TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and
each of them provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by

two or more lower level protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

• A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

• A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link
layer defined in the OSI reference model.
• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network. •
This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between
two devices on the same network.
• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP
datagram into frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP
addresses into physical addresses. • The protocols used by this layer are
ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer

• An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

• An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
• The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they
take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant
part of the entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

• IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as

IP addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher
layers to identify the device and to provide internetwork routing.
• Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the
data is to be transmitted.
• Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data
from the transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the
data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data into
message known as IP datagram.
• Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of
the IP datagram by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum
Transmission unit (MTU). If the
size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol
splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the
local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or
intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are
reassembled to form an original message.
• Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as
LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and
destination are on the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent
indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through
various devices such as routers.

Transmission control protocol.

• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of
transmission. o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the
errors but not specify the error. o User Datagram Protocol
discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the
sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:

Source port address: The source port address is the address of

the application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is
the address of the application program that receives the
message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the
user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
 o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only
checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is
active for the duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and
retransmits the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the
segments must be received and
acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be
completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller
units known as segment, and each segment contains a sequence
number which is required for reordering the frames to form an
original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders
them based on sequence numbers.

Application Layer

• An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

• It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of
representation. • This layer allows the user to interact with the
application.
• When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
• There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application
cannot be placed inside the application layer except those who interact
with the communication
 system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in application
layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the
network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

• HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows
us to access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the
form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer
protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where
there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
• SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a
framework used for managing the devices on the internet by using the
TCP/IP protocol suite. • SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer
protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail is known as a
Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to
another e-mail address.
• DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to
identify the connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people
prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system
that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name
System.
• TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the
connection between the local computer and remote computer in such a
way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
• FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet
protocol used for transmitting the files from one computer to another
computer.
DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM
HIERARCHIAL NAMES

Domain Names are hierarchical and each part of a domain name is referred to
as either the root, top level, second level or as a sub-domain. To allow
computers to properly recognize a fully qualified domain name, dots are
placed between each part of the name. All resolvers treat dots as separators
between the parts of the domain name. The fully qualified domain name is
split into pieces at the dots and the tree is searched starting from the root of
the hierarchial tree structure. All resolvers start their lookups at the root,
therefore the root is represented by a dot and is often assumed to be there,
even when not shown. The resolver navigates its way down the tree until it
gets to the last, left-most part of the domain name and then looks within that
location for the information it needs. Information about a host such as its
name, its IP address and occasionally even its function are stored in one or
more zone files which together compose a larger zone often referred to as a
domain.
 • Top Level Domains (TLD's)
• Second Level Domains
• Sub-Domains
• Host Name (a resource record)

Within the hierarchy, you will start resolution at the top level domain, work
your way down to the second-level domain, then through zero, one or more
sub-domains until you get to the actual host name you want to resolve into
an IP address.

It is traditional to use different DNS servers for each level of the DNS
hierarchy. The root of all DNS entries is handled by the DNS servers at the
InterNIC [well, sort of, but we'll get to that later --InetD ]. The InterNIC
points the Top Level Domains (TLDs) to the top level domain name servers
maintained by all registrars such as Network Solutions,
[Link], OpenSRS and many others. Next come each domain's server
will delegate to the DNS server at the next lower level in the hierarchy.

For example, in the figure below, .edu is the top level domain, berkeley is
the second level domain, and .cs is the sub-domain of berkeley. Eos is the
host name. A DNS server would store the IP address of the host where its
name resides in the tree.
SUBNET AUTHORITY

INTERNET DOMAIN SYSTEM

A domain name is an identification string that defines a realm of

administrative autonomy, authority or control within the Internet. Domain
names are used in various networking contexts and for application-specific
naming and addressing purposes. In general, a domain name identifies a
network domain, or it represents an Internet Protocol (IP) resource, such as a
personal computer used to access the Internet, a server computer hosting a
web site, or the web site itself or any other service communicated via the
Internet. In 2017, 330.6 million domain names had been registered.

Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain Name
System (DNS). Any name registered in the DNS is a domain name. Domain
names are organized in subordinate levels (subdomains) of the DNS root
domain, which is nameless. The first-level set of domain names are the top-
level domains (TLDs), including the generic top-level domains (gTLDs),
such as the prominent domains com, info, net, edu, and org, and the country
code top-level domains (ccTLDs). Below these top-level domains in the
DNS hierarchy are the second-level and third-level domain names that are
typically open for reservation by end-users who wish to connect local area
networks to the Internet, create other publicly accessible Internet resources or
run web sites.
The registration of these domain names is usually administered by domain
name registrars who sell their services to the public.

A fully qualified domain name (FQDN) is a domain name that is

completely specified with all labels in the hierarchy of the DNS, having no
parts omitted.
MAPPING OF DOMAIN NAME TO ADDRESS

Mapping a domain name to an IP Address is known as Name-Address

Resolution. The Domain Name Server (DNS) Resolver performs this
operation by consulting name servers.

In order to find a particular DNS the requesting host place it’s query to the
Local DNS Server with a mapping request. If it has the information, the
resolver is satisfied else the resolver is referred to other servers or other
servers are asked to provide the information. After the resolver, gets the
response, it checks whether the response is correct or not. If the response
is correct, the response is passed to the process that requested it, else the
name query fails.

The way the operating system resolves the domain name is based upon its
configuration. For almost all operating systems the default order for Domain
Name resolution is as follows:
1. Hosts File - There is a file called the HOSTS file that you can use to
convert domain names to IP addresses. Entries in the HOSTS file
override any mappings that would be resolved via a DNS server.
2. Domain Name System - This is the system used on the Internet for
converting domain names to their corresponding IP addresses. Your
operating system will connect to the DNS server configured on your
computer and have that server return to you the IP address for the domain
name you queried it with.
3. Netbios - This only applies to Windows machines and will only be used to
map names to IP addresses if all previous methods failed. This method
will attempt to map the netbios name you are trying to connect to with an
IP address.
WORLD WIDE WEB

World Wide Web (WWW), byname the Web, the leading information
retrieval service of the Internet (the worldwide computer network). The Web
gives users access to a vast array of documents that are connected to each
other by means of hypertext or hypermedia links—i.e., hyperlinks, electronic
connections that link related pieces of information in order to allow a user
easy access to them. Hypertext allows the user to select a word or phrase from
text and thereby access other documents that contain additional information
pertaining to that word or phrase. Hypermedia documents feature links to
images, sounds, animations, and movies. The Web operates within the
Internet’s basic client-server format; servers are computer programs that store
and transmit documents to other computers on the network when asked to,
while clients are programs that request documents from a server as the user
asks for them. Browser software allows users to view the retrieved
documents.

BROWSERS
A browser is an application program that provides a way to look at and
interact with all the information on the World Wide Web. This includes Web
pages, videos and images. The word "browser" originated prior to the Web as
a generic term for user interfaces that let you browse (navigate through and
read) text files online. Many people will use web browsers today for access to
the internet and is seen almost as a necessity in how many navigate their daily
life.

A Web browser is a client program that uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer

Protocol) to make requests of Web servers throughout the Internet on behalf
of the browser user. Most browsers support e-mail and the File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), but a Web browser is not required for those Internet
protocols and more specialized client programs are more popular. Most
Web browsers share standard features such as:

•A home button- which, when selected, will bring a user to a pre-

defined homepage. • A Web address bar, which allows users to input a
Web address and visit a website. • Back and forward buttons- which
will take the user to the previous or the next page they were on.
 • Refresh- a button which can be used to reload a Web page.
• Stop- a button which makes a Web cease communication with a Web server,
stopping a page from loading.

Terminology Basics

A Client is either a person or an organization using as a service. In the IT context, the

client is a computer/device, also called a Host, that actually uses the service or accepts
the information. Client devices include laptops, workstations, IoT devices, and similar
network-friendly devices.

A Server in the IT world is a remote computer that provides access to data and
services. Servers are usually physical devices such as rack servers, though the rise
of cloud computing has brought virtual servers into the equation. The server handles
processes like e-mail, application hosting, Internet connections, printing, and more.

Client-Server Architecture Explained

The client-server architecture refers to a system that hosts, delivers, and manages
most of the resources and services that the client requests. In this model, all requests
and services are delivered over a network, and it is also referred to as the networking
computing model or client server network.

Client-server architecture, alternatively called a client-server model, is a network

application that breaks down tasks and workloads between clients and servers that
reside on the same system or are linked by a computer network.

Client-server architecture typically features multiple users’ workstations, PCs, or

other devices, connected to a central server via an Internet connection or other
network. The client sends a request for data, and the server accepts and
accommodates the request, sending the data packets back to the user who needs them.

This model is also called a client-server network or a network computing model.

To sum it up briefly:

• First, the client sends their request via a network-enabled device

• Then, the network server accepts and processes the user request
• Finally, the server delivers the reply to the client
 What’s the Purpose of Client-Server Architecture?

We have already established that technology is constantly evolving and improving,

often at a very rapid pace. As a result, today's businesses increasingly rely on
technology, especially IT, to flourish and stay competitive in an "evolve or die"
environment.

Therefore, today's organizations need a system that makes it easy to collect, process,
and act on corporate data, thus increasing business procedure efficiency and ensuring
survivability in the modern world's markets.

The client-server network model brings a higher level of processing that increases the
effectiveness of workstation power, workgroup empowerment, remote network
management, market-driven business, and the preservation of existing investments.

In summary, client-server architecture provides the exact framework that today’s

organizations need to meet the challenges of a rapidly evolving IT world.

The Characteristics of Client-Server Architecture

Client-server architecture typically features the following characteristics:

• Client and server machines typically require different hardware and software
resources and come from other vendors.
• The network has horizontal scalability, which increases the number of client
machines and vertical scalability, an then moves the entire process to more
powerful servers or a multi-server configuration.
• One computer server can provide multiple services simultaneously, although
each service requires a separate server program.
• Both client and server applications interact directly with a transport layer
protocol. This process establishes communication and enables the entities to send
and receive information.
• Both the client and server computers need a complete stack of protocols. The
transport protocol employs lower-layer protocols to send and receive individual
messages

Visualizing Client-Server Architecture

The following client-server diagram shows the basics of of the architecture:

 What Are Some Examples of Client-Server Architecture?

You may wonder what constitutes a real-life application of client-server architecture. Here are three
examples of how you use client-server architecture, probably more often than you think!

• Email servers: Thanks to ease and speed, e-mail has supplanted traditional postal mail as the
primary form of corporate communication. E-mail servers, aided by various brands of dedicated software,
send and receive e-mails between parties.

• File servers: If you store files on cloud-based services such as Google Docs or Microsoft Office,
you're using a file server. File servers are centralized locations for file storage and are accessed by many
clients.

• Web servers: These high-performance servers host many different websites, and clients access
them through the Internet. Here’s a step-by-step breakdown:

• The client/user uses their web browser to enter the URL they want

• The browser asks the Domain Name System (DNS) for an IP address

• The DNS server finds the desired server’s IP address and sends it to the web browser

• The browser creates either an HTTPS or HTTP request

• The server/producer sends the user the correct files

• The client/user receives the files sent by the server, and the process is repeated as needed
 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Client-Server Architecture

Client-server architecture brings its share of positives and negatives to today’s digital consumers. We start
with a list of advantages:

• It’s a centralized system that keeps all the data and its controls in one place

• It brings a high level of scalability, organization, and efficiency

• It allows the IT staff to change the Client and Server capacities separately

• It’s cost-efficient, especially in terms of maintenance

• It allows data recovery

• It allows load-balancing, which optimizes performance

• It allows different platforms to share resources

• Users don’t need to log into a terminal or another processor to access corporate information or
desktop tools like PowerPoint presenters or spreadsheet utilities

• The setup reduces the incidence of data replication

Naturally, client-server architecture isn’t all sunshine and lollipops. Here are the downsides:

• If the server has a worm, virus, or Trojan, the users will likely catch it since the network consists of
linked clients and servers

• The server is vulnerable to Denial of Service (DoS) attacks

• Data packets can be spoofed or modified during transmission

• It’s expensive to start up and initially implement

• If a critical server goes down, the clients are dead in the water

• The setup is prone to phishing and Man in the Middle (MITM) attacks