Introduction

PERSONALITY - MEANING AND DEFINITIONS

The word "personality" comes from the Latin word "per sona," which means “speak
through." It originally refers to the masks worn by actors in ancient Greek dramas on stage.
Thus, the early understanding of personality was that of a superficial social image that a
person assumes by acting out life roles. Personality is defined as the distinctive patterns of
behaviour and thinking that determine a person's ability to adjust to their environment.
Personality is defined as a person's ability to influence others, their understanding and the
perception of themselves, and their pattern of inner and outside measurable traits. A
person's personality is defined by repeating psychological patterns such as emotions,
feelings, beliefs, and behaviour. It denotes a person's overall profile, or a set of stable
features that captures their distinct personality. Both internal and exterior components
make up a person's personality. External characteristics, also known as physical
characteristics, are observable actions from which we can infer the information about a
person's personality. Internal or cognitive characteristics are feelings, thoughts, ideas,
beliefs, and interests that are basically more complex. One of the most important
determinants of an individual's behaviour is his personality. The term "personality" refers to
a person's "unique qualities" that distinguish them from others. There is no single universally
accepted definition of "personality" as it is interpreted differently by different people. The
term "personality" is understood in light of the definitions given by some experts. Gordon
Allport defined personality as “the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment”.
“Personality is a broad, amorphous designation relating to fundamental approaches of
persons to others and themselves”, writes Kolasa. The term refers to the study of the
characteristic traits of an individual, the relationships between these traits and how a person
adjusts to other people and situations, according to most psychologists and students of
behaviour.

Determinants of Personality

After understanding the meaning of personality, the next question is what makes the
personality of an individual or how the personality of an individual is developed. Major
determinants of personality are discussed as follows:

a) Heredity: Heredity refers to personality attributes determined at the time of conception

of an individual. Characteristics such as body type, build, facial attractiveness, eye colour,
hair colour, height, temperament, sex, energy level and reflexes are generally inherited from
the parents either completely or partially. This approach argues that the basis of human
personality lies in the molecular structure of the genes.

b) Environment: No doubt that heredity is an important determinant of personality, but, if

all personality traits were determined by heredity, they would be fixed at the time of the
birth and would never change in the life span of an individual. Sadly, it is not true. This
means that the personality of an individual is determined as much by the environment as it
is by the heredity. A person's environment affects his personality: culture, family, society and
situation. The influence of all these factors on the personality of an individual can be
explained as below:

Culture: Culture defines the norms, values, attitudes and beliefs which are passed from one
generation to another generation. Every individual learns different values and the way he
should behave in different situations from the culture to which he belongs. The way people
develop their attitude towards independence, competition, aggression, task assigned, risk-
taking, and cooperation is determined by their culture.

Every culture has its sub-cultures, which further establish moral values, style of dress,
standards of cleanliness, definition of success etc. These cultural subgroups have a great
influence on the personality development of an individual. For example: A girl who is born
and brought up in a rich family in an urban area will behave differently from a girl who is
born and brought up in a poor family in a slum area. Family: Family is one of the very
important determinants of personality. It affects the personality development of an
individual specifically in the early phases of life. The influence of family on a person’s
personality is determined by the following factors:

 Socio-economic level of the family

 Family size

 Race

 Religion

 Education level of parents

Every child identifies a role model in the family and tries to behave like the role model which
he chooses. The process of identification can be viewed from three different perspectives
given as below:

 It can be viewed as a similarity of behaviour.

 It can be viewed as a child’s motives and desires to become like a role model.

 It is viewed as the process through which it acquires the traits of role model.

Society: Various groups and relevant people of society and organisations exert a great
influence on an individual's personality development. This phenomenon is called
socialisation. In other words, socialisation involves the process by which a person learns and
acquires from society the behaviour patterns that are customary and acceptable to the
family, society, and organisations.
Situation: Situational factors also play a very important role in determining an individual's
personality. It is often said that life is a collection of experiences. Every individual faces
different experiences in his life, which exert a great deal of influence on his personality
development. These experiences sometimes offer constraints and sometimes push a
person’s behaviour.

Type A Personality and type B personality

Individuals can also be categorised into Type A personality and Type B personality based on
their general behaviour pattern. . Characteristics of Type A and Type B personalities are
discussed as follows:

Meaning:

 Type A Personality: Individuals with this personality type are competitive, ambitious,
goal-oriented, and often experience a sense of urgency. They tend to be high
achievers but are more prone to stress and burnout due to their intense and fast-
paced nature.

 Type B Personality: Individuals with this personality type are relaxed, patient, easy-
going, and less stressed about achieving goals. They are more balanced in their
approach and tend to enjoy life without a constant sense of urgency.

Type A personalities:

(i) Hurried moving, eating and walking.

(ii) Tend to undertake two or more tasks simultaneously;
(iii) Cannot be relaxed and don’t believe in having leisure time
(iv) Believe in evaluating their success in terms of how much they gain from everything.
The alternative to the Type A personality is the Type B personality.
People with Type B personalities are usually relaxed, incompetent and easy going.

Type B Personality:

(i) Never become impatient and never face hurriedness.

(ii) Never discuss achievements with others unless or until the situation
demands so.
(iii) More relaxed and Play for fun and relaxation than to win.

Implications in an Organization:

 Type A Personality in the Workplace:

 o Advantages: Excellent for high-pressure tasks, leadership roles, and meeting
tight deadlines. Type A individuals thrive in competitive environments and are
often natural leaders.
o Challenges: Can create a stressful atmosphere for others, may struggle with
teamwork, and are prone to burnout or health issues (e.g., heart problems
due to stress).
 Type B Personality in the Workplace:
o Advantages: Great at maintaining workplace harmony, managing stress, and
working collaboratively. They can bring balance to a fast-paced work
environment.
o Challenges: May lack urgency or the drive needed in high-stakes situations.
They may also require motivation for tasks that demand intense focus or
deadlines.

Examples:

 Type A Personality:

o A sales executive working tirelessly to meet or exceed targets and consistently

striving to outperform their peers.

o A project manager who meticulously plans every detail and pushes their team
to meet aggressive deadlines.

 Type B Personality:

o A human resources professional focused on building relationships and

ensuring employee well-being while maintaining a relaxed demeanour.

o A creative designer who takes their time to explore ideas and enjoys the
process of creation without stressing over strict timeline.

Features

Type A Personality Type B Personality

Highly competitive and achievement-driven Relaxed, calm, and less competitive
Often impatient and time-conscious Patient, takes life at a slower pace
Frequently experiences stress and frustration Rarely gets stressed, tends to stay composed
Multitasks but may experience inefficiency under
pressure Focuses on one task at a time
Strong desire for control and dominance More accepting, adaptable, and laid-back
Displays empathy and avoids being overly self-
Often critical of self and others critical

Comparison
 Aspect Type A Type B

Fast-paced, goal-oriented,
Work Style Relaxed, steady, and less driven
aggressive

Stress High stress levels and Low stress levels, calm, and
Response frustration composed

Decision- Quick and sometimes

Thoughtful and patient
Making impulsive

Adaptability Less adaptable, more rigid Highly adaptable and flexible

Interpersonal May dominate Cooperative and fosters

Relations conversations and situations collaboration

Health Prone to stress-related Generally healthier and stress-

Implications illnesses free

Big Five Personality Test

The Big Five Personality Traits Lewis Goldberg, an American psychologist, is regarded as one
of the most influential researchers in the subject of personality psychology. His significant
study reduced Raymond Cattell's personality's 16 "basic components" to five main factors,
identical to the five factors established by his fellow psychologists in the 1960s. Two other
renowned personality psychologists, Paul Costa and Robert McCrae, were drawn to this five-
factor model and validated its validity. The "Big Five" personality model has been used to
initiate thousands of personality explorations across many countries, cultures, and
demographics. The five-factor model divides a personality into five components: openness,
conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism/stress tolerance.

1. Openness: This trait is sometimes referred to as a person's mental experiences or

imagination depth. It refers to a person's willingness to try new things, be open, and think
creatively. People who score well in this area are usually creative and curious, whilst those
who score poorly are usually conservative and stick within their comfort zones. Openness is
a measure of how imaginative and creative a person is, as opposed to how practical and
conventional they are.

2. Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness is a measure of a person's foresight, resolve, self-

discipline, and organization. Employee productivity is generally predicted by employee
conscientiousness, especially in lower-level roles. Someone who scores higher in this
category is more goal-oriented, has better impulse control, and is more structured in
general. Those who score poorly in this category are more prone to be impulsive and
procrastinate on their homework

3. Extroversion: Extraversion is a personality trait that assesses a person's sociability,

openness, and energy. Those with a high extraversion score are more assertive, socially
confident, and energized by social engagement, whereas those with a low extraversion score
are more prone to seek seclusion and introspection. People who score lower on the
extroversion scale are thought to be introverted, or deliberate, quiet, and independent.
People who fall on one side or the other of the spectrum are better suited for certain types
of positions.

4. Agreeableness: Agreeableness is a measure of a person's tendencies for social harmony.

This trait represents how well the individual gets along with others, how cooperative they
are, and how well they can communicate within a team. People with a high score in this trait
are generally likeable, sympathetic, and affectionate, whereas those with a low score are
perceived as blunt, rude, and sarcastic.

5. Neuroticism / stress tolerance: It measures a person's ability to control negative

emotions such as anxiety and sadness. Individuals' stress tolerance is measured by how they
react to stress. Emotional instability is a term used to describe a tendency to readily
experience unpleasant emotions such as anger, anxiety, melancholy, or vulnerability. A high
score in this category suggests that a person is likely to experience these feelings and has
low self-esteem. Those who earn a low score are more likely to be confident and daring.

Implication in organization

Positive Implications Challenges in the

Trait
in the Workplace Workplace

- Encourages - May lose focus on

Openness innovation and practical tasks or resist
creativity. routine processes.
- Adapts well to
change and new
challenges.
- Effective in roles
requiring problem-
solving and creative
thinking.
- Highly productive - May become overly
Conscientiousness and reliable in perfectionistic or rigid in
completing tasks. work habits.
- Struggles in
- Strong time
environments requiring
management and
rapid flexibility or
goal-setting skills.
spontaneity.
 - Drives
organizational
efficiency and
effectiveness.
- Excellent in roles
- Can dominate
requiring social
discussions and
Extraversion interaction (e.g.,
overshadow quieter
sales, leadership,
employees.
teamwork).

- Builds positive
- May struggle in roles
workplace
requiring deep focus or
relationships and
independent work.
motivates teams.

- Encourages - May avoid necessary

teamwork, confrontations or
Agreeableness
collaboration, and struggle to assert
conflict resolution. themselves.

- Fosters a supportive - Can compromise

and inclusive work organizational goals to
environment. maintain harmony.

- High stress and

- Can bring attention
emotional instability can
Neuroticism to potential risks and
affect productivity and
challenges.
relationships.
- Increases awareness - May create a negative
of organizational atmosphere due to
well-being issues frequent emotional
(e.g., burnout risks). fluctuations

Stages of Personality Development

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages
of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person
experiences a psychosocial crisis that could positively or negatively affect personality
development.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This
stage begins at birth and continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage,
the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary
caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
  Trust: If the caregiver is reliable, consistent, and nurturing, the child will develop a
sense of trust, believing that the world is safe and that people are dependable and
affectionate.
This sense of trust allows the child to feel secure even when threatened and
extends into their other relationships, maintaining their sense of security
amidst potential threats.
 Mistrust: Conversely, if the caregiver fails to provide consistent, adequate care and
affection, the child may develop a sense of mistrust and insecurity.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson’s stages of
psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to
approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing
a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

 Autonomy: If encouraged and supported in their increased independence, children

will become more confident and secure in their ability to survive.

They will feel comfortable making decisions, explore their surroundings more freely, and
have a sense of self-control. Achieving this autonomy helps them feel able and capable of
leading their lives.

 Shame and Doubt: On the other hand, if children are overly controlled or criticized,
they may begin to feel ashamed of their autonomy and doubt their abilities.

This can lead to a lack of confidence, fear of trying new things, and a sense of inadequacy
about their self-control abilities.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development.
During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through
directing play and other social interaction.

 Initiative: When caregivers encourage and support children to take the initiative,
they can start planning activities, accomplish tasks, and face challenges.

The children will learn to take the initiative and assert control over their environment.

They can begin to think for themselves, formulate plans, and execute them, which helps
foster a sense of purpose.

 Guilt: If caregivers discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss or

criticize their efforts, children may feel guilty about their desires and initiatives.

This could potentially lead to feelings of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson’s fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs
during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. In this stage, children start to
compare themselves with their peers to gauge their abilities and worth.

 Industry: If children are encouraged by parents and teachers to develop skills, they
gain a sense of industry—a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.

They start learning to work and cooperate with others and begin to understand that they
can use their skills to complete tasks. This leads to a sense of confidence in their ability to
achieve goals.

 Inferiority: On the other hand, if children receive negative feedback or are not
allowed to demonstrate their skills, they may develop a sense of inferiority.

They may start to feel that they aren’t as good as their peers or that their efforts aren’t
valued, leading to a lack of self-confidence and a feeling of inadequacy.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role
confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage,
adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration
of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

 Identity: If adolescents are supported in their exploration and given the freedom to
explore different roles, they are likely to emerge from this stage with a strong sense
of self and a feeling of independence and control.

This process involves exploring their interests, values, and goals, which helps them form
their own unique identity.

 Role Confusion: If adolescents are restricted and not given the space to explore or
find the process too overwhelming or distressing, they may experience role
confusion.

This could mean being unsure about one’s place in the world, values, and future direction.
They may struggle to identify their purpose or path, leading to confusion about their
personal identity.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of
approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate,
loving relationships with other people.
  Intimacy: Individuals who successfully navigate this stage are able to form intimate,
reciprocal relationships with others.

They can form close bonds and are comfortable with mutual dependency. Intimacy involves
the ability to be open and share oneself with others, as well as the willingness to commit to
relationships and make personal sacrifices for the sake of these relationships.

 Isolation: If individuals struggle to form these close relationships, perhaps due to

earlier unresolved identity crises or fear of rejection, they may experience isolation.

Isolation refers to the inability to form meaningful, intimate relationships with others. This
could lead to feelings of loneliness, alienation, and exclusion.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson’s theory of
psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40
to 65 yrs). During this stage, individuals focus more on building our lives, primarily through
our careers, families, and contributions to society.

 Generativity: If individuals feel they are making valuable contributions to the world,
for instance, through raising children or contributing to positive changes in society,
they will feel a sense of generativity.

Generativity involves concern for others and the desire to contribute to future generations,
often through parenting, mentoring, leadership roles, or creative output that adds value to
society.

 Stagnation: If individuals feel they are not making a positive impact or are not
involved in productive or creative tasks, they may experience stagnation.

Stagnation involves feeling unproductive and uninvolved, leading to self-absorption, lack of

growth, and feelings of emptiness.

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of
psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is
during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we
see ourselves as leading a successful life

 Ego Integrity: If individuals feel they have lived a fulfilling and meaningful life, they
will experience ego integrity.

This is characterized by a sense of acceptance of their life as it was, the ability to find
coherence and purpose in their experiences, and a sense of wisdom and fulfillment.
  Despair: On the other hand, if individuals feel regretful about their past, feel they
have made poor decisions, or believe they’ve failed to achieve their life goals, they
may experience despair.

Despair involves feelings of regret, bitterness, and disappointment with one’s life, and a fear
of impending death.