ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE ENGINEERING Dr. A.

Ravikrishnan

ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCE ENGINEERING
A Comprehensive Textbook for Engineering Students

Ecology Pollution Control Water Treatment Air Quality

Dr. A. Ravikrishnan
Professor, Department of Environmental Engineering

First Edition | Academic Press

ISBN: 978-81-XXXX-XXX-X

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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE ENGINEERING Dr. A. Ravikrishnan

Preface
Environmental Science Engineering is a discipline that bridges the gap between fundamental environmental
sciences and engineering practice. As the world grapples with climate change, resource depletion, and
pollution, engineers with a solid understanding of environmental principles are indispensable.

This textbook has been designed as a comprehensive resource for undergraduate and postgraduate
students of Civil, Chemical, Mechanical, and Environmental Engineering programs. The content follows the
latest university curricula and integrates practical case studies from India and around the world.

Each chapter opens with learning objectives, presents theory backed by current research, includes solved
numerical problems, and ends with review questions and references. Special emphasis has been placed on
Indian environmental legislation, pollution standards, and real-world engineering applications.

I express my sincere gratitude to my colleagues at the Department of Environmental Engineering, my

students whose curiosity inspired this work, and my family for their unwavering support. I hope this book
serves as a trustworthy companion in every reader's academic and professional journey.

Dr. A. Ravikrishnan
M.E., Ph.D., MISTE, FIE
Professor & Head, Dept. of Environmental Engineering

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Contents
Chapter
1 Introduction to Environmental Science 10
• 1.1 Scope and Importance
• 1.2 Ecosystem Structure and Function
• 1.3 Biodiversity and Conservation
• 1.4 Environmental Ethics

Chapter
2 Environmental Pollution – An Overview 18
• 2.1 Types and Sources of Pollution
• 2.2 Effects on Human Health and Ecology
• 2.3 Pollution Indicators
• 2.4 Environmental Standards

Chapter
3 Air Pollution and Control 26
• 3.1 Composition of Atmosphere
• 3.2 Air Pollutants: Sources and Effects
• 3.3 Air Quality Index (AQI)
• 3.4 Air Pollution Control Equipment
• 3.5 Indoor Air Quality

Chapter
4 Water Pollution and Treatment 34
• 4.1 Water Resources and Hydrological Cycle
• 4.2 Water Quality Parameters
• 4.3 Industrial and Domestic Wastewater
• 4.4 Treatment Technologies
• 4.5 Drinking Water Standards

Chapter
5 Solid Waste Management 42
• 5.1 Classification of Solid Waste
• 5.2 Collection and Transportation
• 5.3 Treatment: Composting, Incineration, Landfill
• 5.4 Hazardous Waste Management
• 5.5 E-Waste

Chapter
6 Noise and Radiation Pollution 50
• 6.1 Sources and Effects of Noise
• 6.2 Noise Standards and Control
• 6.3 Radioactive Pollution
• 6.4 Electromagnetic Radiation

Chapter
7 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 58
• 7.1 Concept and Methodology
• 7.2 EIA Process in India
• 7.3 Environmental Auditing
• 7.4 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

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Chapter
8 Climate Change and Global Issues 66
• 8.1 Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
• 8.2 Ozone Layer Depletion
• 8.3 Acid Rain
• 8.4 International Agreements: Kyoto, Paris Accord

Chapter
9 Natural Resources and Sustainability 74
• 9.1 Land, Forest, Water, and Mineral Resources
• 9.2 Energy Resources – Conventional and Renewable
• 9.3 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
• 9.4 Green Engineering Principles

Chapter
10 Environmental Legislation 82
• 10.1 Water Act 1974
• 10.2 Air Act 1981
• 10.3 Environment Protection Act 1986
• 10.4 Wildlife Protection Act
• 10.5 CPCB and SPCB

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Introduction to Environmental
CHAPTER
1 Science

1.1 Scope and Importance of Environmental Science

Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical, biological, and information
sciences to study the environment and solutions to environmental problems. Environmental Engineering applies
scientific and engineering principles to improve and maintain the natural environment for human health, safety,
and welfare.

The study of environmental science has gained immense importance in the twenty-first century due to rapid
industrialisation, urbanisation, and population growth. Engineers play a pivotal role in designing systems that
minimise pollution, treat wastewater, manage solid waste, and monitor environmental quality.

◆ Key Objectives of Environmental Engineering

• Prevention and control of air, water, and land pollution
• Design of water supply, treatment, and distribution systems
• Solid and hazardous waste management
• Environmental impact assessment of development projects
• Development of renewable energy technologies

1.2 Ecosystem Structure and Function

An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature comprising living organisms (biotic components) and non-living
components (abiotic components) interacting with each other and with their physical environment. Ecosystems
can be terrestrial (forests, grasslands, deserts) or aquatic (freshwater, marine, estuarine).

Components of an Ecosystem
Component Examples Role

Convert solar energy via

Producers Plants, Algae, Phytoplankton
photosynthesis

Consumers Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores Transfer energy through food chains

Decomposers Bacteria, Fungi Break down dead organic matter

Abiotic Factors Sunlight, Water, Soil, Temperature Provide physical environment

1.3 Biodiversity and Conservation

Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. It encompasses genetic diversity (variation within
species), species diversity (number of species), and ecosystem diversity (variety of habitats and ecological
processes). India is one of the 17 megadiverse countries of the world, hosting about 7–8% of global biodiversity.

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Threats to biodiversity include habitat loss and fragmentation, invasive species, over-exploitation, pollution, and
climate change. Conservation strategies include in-situ conservation (protected areas, biosphere reserves) and
ex-situ conservation (zoos, seed banks, botanical gardens).

1.4 Environmental Ethics

Environmental ethics is the philosophical discipline that examines the moral relationship between human beings
and the natural environment. It recognises that the environment has intrinsic value beyond its utility to humans.
The precautionary principle, polluter-pays principle, and intergenerational equity form the ethical foundation of
modern environmental legislation.

Review Questions
1. Define an ecosystem and explain its biotic and abiotic components.
2. What is biodiversity? Describe in-situ and ex-situ methods of conservation.
3. Explain the role of an environmental engineer in pollution control.
4. Discuss the precautionary principle with a suitable example.

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Environmental Pollution – An
CHAPTER
2 Overview

2.1 Types and Sources of Pollution

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse changes. It can be
classified on the basis of the medium affected (air, water, soil, noise, radiation) or the source (point source vs.
non-point source).

Type Major Sources Key Pollutants

Air Pollution Industries, Vehicles, Power Plants SO2, NOx, PM2.5, CO, VOCs

Water Pollution Sewage, Agriculture, Industries BOD, Heavy Metals, Nitrates

Soil Pollution Pesticides, Mining, Landfills Cadmium, Lead, Dioxins

Noise Pollution Transport, Construction, Industry dB levels above 85

Radioactive Nuclear Plants, X-rays, Mining Alpha, Beta, Gamma rays

2.2 Effects on Human Health and Ecology

Pollutants enter the human body through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. Acute exposure can cause
immediate health effects, whereas chronic exposure leads to long-term diseases such as cancer, respiratory
disorders, neurological damage, and reproductive complications. Ecosystem effects include loss of biodiversity,
eutrophication of water bodies, and soil degradation.

◆ Important Health Effects of Common Pollutants

• Particulate Matter (PM2.5): Lung cancer, cardiovascular disease
• Lead: Neurological damage, cognitive impairment in children
• Arsenic (water): Skin lesions, bladder and lung cancer
• Nitrates: Methaemoglobinaemia (blue baby syndrome) in infants
• Noise >85 dB: Permanent hearing loss, hypertension

2.3 Environmental Standards in India

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) prescribe National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), effluent discharge standards, and noise limits. These are periodically
revised based on scientific evidence and WHO guidelines.

Review Questions
1. Classify pollutants based on their origin and persistence.
2. What are point and non-point sources? Give two examples each.

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3. Describe the health effects of PM2.5 and ground-level ozone.

4. Write a note on the role of CPCB in setting environmental standards.

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CHAPTER
3 Air Pollution and Control

3.1 Composition of the Atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere is a layered gaseous envelope extending up to about 10,000 km. The troposphere (0–12
km) contains 75% of the atmosphere's mass and is where weather occurs. The stratosphere (12–50 km) contains
the ozone layer. The composition of dry air is approximately 78% N2, 21% O2, 0.93% Ar, and 0.04% CO2.

3.2 Air Pollutants: Sources and Effects

Primary pollutants are emitted directly from sources (e.g., SO2 from coal combustion, CO from incomplete
combustion). Secondary pollutants are formed through atmospheric reactions — ground-level ozone and
photochemical smog are prominent examples.

Pollutant 24-hr Standard (NAAQS) Sources

PM2.5 60 µg/m³ Vehicles, industries, dust

PM10 100 µg/m³ Road dust, construction

SO2 80 µg/m³ Coal combustion, smelters

NO2 80 µg/m³ Vehicles, power plants

CO 2 mg/m³ (8hr) Incomplete combustion

Ozone (O3) 100 µg/m³ Photochemical reactions

Table 3.1: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) – India

3.3 Air Pollution Control Equipment

• Cyclone Separators: Use centrifugal force to remove coarse particles (>10 µm) from gas streams.
Efficiency ~80–90% for particles >5 µm.
• Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP): Charge particles and collect them on oppositely charged plates.
Efficiency >99% for fine particles. Widely used in thermal power plants.
• Fabric Filters (Baghouses): Gas passes through fabric bags trapping particles. Very high efficiency
(>99.9%) even for sub-micron particles.
• Wet Scrubbers: Liquid (usually water) contacts polluted gas, removing both particles and soluble gases
(SO2, HCl). Suitable for sticky or hygroscopic materials.
• Catalytic Converters: Convert CO, NOx, and hydrocarbons to CO2, N2, and H2O using platinum-group
metal catalysts. Mandatory in all BS-VI vehicles.

3.4 Indoor Air Quality

Indoor air pollution is a major health concern, particularly in developing countries where biomass and coal are
used for cooking. Key indoor pollutants include CO, CO2, radon, VOCs, formaldehyde, and biological agents
(moulds, allergens). Adequate ventilation, use of LPG/PNG, and low-emission building materials are primary
mitigation strategies.

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Review Questions
1. Distinguish between primary and secondary air pollutants with examples.
2. Explain the working principle of an Electrostatic Precipitator.
3. What is photochemical smog? Describe its formation mechanism.
4. Calculate the AQI for PM2.5 if the measured 24-hr average is 95 µg/m³.

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CHAPTER
4 Water Pollution and Treatment

4.1 Water Resources and the Hydrological Cycle

Water is essential for all life processes. The total water on Earth is about 1.4 billion km³, but only 2.5% is
freshwater, and less than 1% is accessible for human use. The hydrological cycle describes the continuous
movement of water through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and transpiration.

4.2 Water Quality Parameters

Parameter Unit IS:10500 Permissible Limit

pH - 6.5 – 8.5

Turbidity NTU 5 (desirable), 10 (max)

Total Dissolved Solids mg/L 500 (desirable), 2000 (max)

BOD (5-day, 20°C) mg/L < 3 (treated water)

Dissolved Oxygen mg/L > 5 (rivers)

Nitrates (as NO3) mg/L 45

Fluoride mg/L 1.0 (desirable), 1.5 (max)

Arsenic mg/L 0.01

Total Coliform MPN/100mL Nil in treated water

Table 4.1: Drinking Water Quality Standards (IS:10500)

4.3 Wastewater Treatment Technologies

Wastewater treatment involves a series of physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove contaminants
and produce a treated effluent safe for discharge or reuse.

Stages of Treatment
Preliminary Treatment: Screening, grit removal, equalisation — removal of large solids and floating matter.
Primary Treatment: Sedimentation (plain/coagulation-aided) — removes 50–70% of suspended solids and
30–40% of BOD.
Secondary Treatment: Biological treatment — Activated Sludge Process (ASP), Trickling Filters, SBR,
MBBR. Removes 85–95% of BOD.
Tertiary Treatment: Filtration, disinfection (chlorination, UV, ozonation), nutrient removal. Produces
near-potable quality effluent.
Sludge Treatment: Thickening, anaerobic digestion, dewatering, drying. Biogas recovered from digestion.

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◆ Activated Sludge Process – Key Design Parameters

• F/M ratio (Food-to-Microorganism): 0.2–0.6 kg BOD/kg MLSS/day
• MLSS (Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids): 2000–4000 mg/L
• SRT (Sludge Retention Time): 5–15 days
• HRT (Hydraulic Retention Time): 4–8 hours
• Oxygen requirement: ~1.5 kg O2 per kg BOD removed

Review Questions
1. Define BOD and COD. How are they related to the degree of water pollution?
2. Describe the Activated Sludge Process with a neat sketch.
3. A sewage sample has BOD5 of 200 mg/L. Design the detention tank for secondary treatment.
4. What are advanced oxidation processes (AOPs)? Give two applications.

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CHAPTER
5 Solid Waste Management

5.1 Classification of Solid Waste

Solid waste encompasses all non-liquid wastes arising from human activities. The Solid Waste Management
Rules 2016 classify waste into municipal solid waste (MSW), construction and demolition waste, industrial waste,
biomedical waste, and e-waste.

Category Composition Management Method

Biodegradable (wet) Food scraps, garden waste Composting, Biomethanation

Dry recyclables Paper, plastic, metal, glass Recycling, Upcycling

Inert waste Ceramics, bricks, dust Sanitary landfill

Hazardous waste Chemicals, batteries, solvents Treatment & secure landfill

Biomedical waste Sharps, pathological waste Incineration, autoclaving

E-waste PCBs, CRTs, batteries Authorised recyclers

5.2 Treatment Technologies

Composting is a biological process converting organic matter into humus-like material through aerobic
decomposition. Windrow, static pile, and in-vessel composting are common methods. The C:N ratio of 25–30:1 is
optimal.

Sanitary Landfill is the controlled disposal of waste in lined cells with leachate collection and gas extraction
systems. Modern landfills generate electricity from landfill gas (LFG) comprising ~55% CH4 and ~45% CO2.

Incineration reduces waste volume by ~90% and weight by ~75% through high-temperature combustion
(850–1100°C). Waste-to-Energy (WtE) plants recover heat and electricity. Stringent flue gas treatment (bag
filters, scrubbers) is required to control dioxin emissions.

Review Questions
1. Define solid waste. How is it classified under SWM Rules 2016?
2. Compare aerobic composting and anaerobic digestion for treating organic waste.
3. What are the design requirements for a sanitary landfill? Describe the liner system.
4. Explain the concept of extended producer responsibility (EPR) for plastic waste.

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Environmental Impact Assessment

CHAPTER
7 (EIA)

7.1 Concept and Methodology of EIA

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a systematic process to evaluate the likely environmental
consequences of a proposed project or development before decisions are made. It was mandated in India under
the Environment Protection Act 1986, and the EIA Notification 2006 (amended 2020) governs its implementation.

Stages of EIA
Screening: Determines whether the project requires a full EIA based on type and scale.
Scoping: Identifies key issues and concerns to be addressed in the EIA study.
Baseline Data Collection: Collects environmental data on air, water, soil, ecology, and socioeconomics.
Impact Prediction: Predicts magnitude and significance of impacts using quantitative models.
Mitigation Measures: Proposes measures to avoid, reduce, or compensate for adverse impacts.
EIA Report (EIS): Compiles all findings into an Environmental Impact Statement.
Review and Decision: SEAC/EAC examines the EIS; MoEFCC grants or denies Environmental Clearance.
Post-Clearance Monitoring: Ensures compliance with conditions through periodic monitoring.

7.2 Environmental Auditing

Environmental auditing is a systematic, documented, periodic, and objective evaluation of how well environmental
organisation, management, and equipment are performing. It identifies compliance gaps and opportunities for
environmental performance improvement.

Review Questions
1. Define EIA. Describe the step-by-step procedure of an EIA study in India.
2. What are the categories of projects under EIA Notification 2006? Give examples.
3. Distinguish between EIA and Environmental Auditing.
4. Explain rapid EIA versus comprehensive EIA with merits and limitations.

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CHAPTER
8 Climate Change and Global Issues

8.1 Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

The greenhouse effect is a natural process by which certain gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, H2O vapour, fluorinated
gases) trap heat in the atmosphere, warming the Earth's surface. Human activities have increased greenhouse
gas concentrations significantly since the Industrial Revolution, intensifying this effect and driving global warming.

GHG GWP (100-yr) Main Sources Conc. (2023)

CO2 1 (reference) Fossil fuels, deforestation 421 ppm

Livestock, rice paddies,

CH4 28 1923 ppb
landfills

N2O 265 Agriculture, fertilisers 336 ppb

HFCs 1300–9810 Refrigerants, aerosols Rising

SF6 23,500 Electrical insulation Trace

Table 8.1: Greenhouse Gases and their Global Warming Potentials

8.2 Ozone Layer Depletion

Stratospheric ozone (O3) absorbs 97–99% of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV-B and UV-C) radiation.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) catalytically destroy ozone. The
Montreal Protocol (1987) and its Kigali Amendment (2016) have successfully phased out ozone-depleting
substances.

8.3 International Agreements

UNFCCC (1992): Framework convention establishing the principle of common but differentiated
responsibilities.
Kyoto Protocol (1997): Legally binding emission reduction targets for developed nations (Annex-I countries).
Paris Agreement (2015): NDC-based approach; aims to limit warming to 1.5–2°C above pre-industrial levels.
Glasgow COP26 (2021): Accelerated phase-down of coal; increased climate finance commitments.

Review Questions
1. Explain the mechanism of the greenhouse effect with a diagram.
2. What is GWP? Compare the GWP of CO2, CH4, and N2O.
3. Discuss the causes and effects of ozone layer depletion.
4. Critically analyse the Paris Agreement and India's NDC commitments.

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CHAPTER
10 Environmental Legislation in India

Overview of Environmental Legislation in India

India has a comprehensive framework of environmental laws enacted to protect the natural environment and
control pollution. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) is the nodal agency for
policy formulation, while CPCB and SPCBs are the enforcement authorities.

Act / Rule Year Key Provisions

Water (Prevention & Control of Establishes CPCB & SPCBs;

1974
Pollution) Act regulates effluent discharge

Levies cess on water consumed by

Water Cess Act 1977
industries

Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Regulates emissions; prescribes

1981
Act NAAQS

Umbrella act; empowers MoEFCC to

Environment Protection Act 1986
issue environmental standards

Handling, storage, transport of

Hazardous Waste Rules 1989/2008/2016
hazardous waste

Segregation, treatment, disposal of

Biomedical Waste Rules 1998/2016
biomedical waste

Processing, composting, landfill

Solid Waste Management Rules 2016
requirements

EPR obligations for producers;

E-Waste Management Rules 2016/2022
collection targets

Phase-out of single-use plastics;

Plastic Waste Management Rules 2016/2022
EPR for packaging

Ambient noise standards; silence

Noise Pollution Rules 2000
zones

Prior environmental clearance for

EIA Notification 2006 (amended 2020)
listed projects

Protects species; establishes

Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (amended)
protected areas

Restricts diversion of forest land for

Forest (Conservation) Act 1980
non-forest purposes

Role of CPCB and SPCBs

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) advises the central government, coordinates activities of SPCBs,
prescribes standards, and collects environmental data. State Pollution Control Boards enforce pollution laws,
grant consents to establish and operate industries, and monitor compliance. Industries must obtain Consent to

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Establish (CTE) before construction and Consent to Operate (CTO) before commissioning.

Review Questions
1. Describe the salient features of the Environment Protection Act 1986.
2. What are the functions and powers of CPCB under the Water Act 1974?
3. Explain the consent mechanism for industries under pollution control laws.
4. Discuss the Hazardous Waste Management Rules with reference to categories and disposal methods.

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