CE PRACTICE I

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The following are some common fluids (left column) with
CHAPTER I | FLUID PROPERTIES
their respective specific gravity (s.g., right column) at 20°C,
unless specifically stated.
1. Hydraulics is a branch of science that deals with the
motion of water or other fluids. Air 0.001204
2. Fluids is defined in this context: are particles that Gasoline 0.68
can freely change or move against their relative position Alcohol (Ethyl) 0.790
without separation of mass. Water (4°𝐶) 1.0
Seawater 1.025
The unit deformation in solid due to shearing forces is Mercury 13.6
proportional to the unit stress up to a certain point: Elastic
limit of the solid, removing these forces the solid will revert EXMAMPLE 1.1 | Calculate the mass density and specific
to its original shape without exceeding this limit. Fluids also gravity of a substance with a specific weight of 7.56kN/m3.
undergo deformation due to shearing forces but at a time
rate or continuous thus, fluid will continue to deform at a Solution:
uniform rate with time, and when the forces are removed,
with the forces contained within itself, will not return to its Using E.1.3 we can rearrange the variables in terms of unit
original form. weight 𝛾 to get the mass density 𝜌.

𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 E.1.3
General properties of fluid: the following are the
fundamental parameters in the study of fluids. 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚 1
𝛾 7.56𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 ∙ 1000 7560 ∙ 3
𝜌 = →= → 𝑠2 𝑚
1. Unit weight (𝛾): The ratio of the fluid’s weight to its 𝑔 9.81𝑚/𝑠 2 𝑚
volume. In Metric System it is in 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 while in English 𝑠2
units 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 . g is gravitational acceleration constant. 𝝆 = 𝟕𝟕𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑔
E.1.1 𝛾 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉 Quick note on units: 7.56kN/m3 was reduced to follow E.1.1
where unit weight is equal to the quotient of the product of
2. Mass density (𝜌): The ratio of fluid’s mass to its volume mass (kg) and gravity (m/s2) to fluid’s volume (m3).
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
E.1.2 𝜌 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉 Using E.1.7 we can directly compute for the specific gravity
s.
Equation E.1.1 and equation E.1.2 can be combined by
substituting E.1.2 to E.1.1 which gives us: 𝛾
𝑠 = 𝛾 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (Eq. 1.7)
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
E.1.3 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
7.56𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
𝑠=
3. Relative density (RD): The ratio of the fluid’s density to 9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
that of pure water at standard conditions.
𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
E.1.4 𝑅𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑇𝑃

The density of pure water at STP (standard temperature and EXMAMPLE 1.2 | A volume of 15.5ft3 of a liquid weighs 782lb.
pressure) is 1000kg/m3 or 1.94slug/ft3 at 4°C or 39.2°F. The Compute the mass density of liquid.
unit weight of water on the other hand is 9.81kN/m3 or
62.4lb/ft3. It is noteworthy to remember that both density Solution:
and unit weight of water vary slightly with temperature and
can be determined using the following: You might directly use the Eq. 1.2 to get the mass density
𝜌, but take note that the unit lb. in English system is the
(𝑇−4)2 force equivalent of Newton in Metric system, thus use Eq.
E.1.5 𝜌𝑤 = 1000 − [kg/m3] 1.1
180
(𝑇−4)2
E.1.6 𝛾𝑤 = 9810 − 18 [N/m3] 𝑚𝑔
Where T is the temperature in °C 𝛾= 𝑉
(Eq. 1.1)

782𝑙𝑏
4. Specific gravity (s): The ratio of the unit weight of a fluid 𝛾= → 50.45𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
15.5𝑓𝑡 3
to the unit weight of water at 4°C or 39.2°F
𝛾 𝛾
E.1.7 𝑠 = 𝛾 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌 = 𝑔 (Rearranging Eq. 1.3 similarly from Example 1.1)
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
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𝜌=
50.45𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 the upper plate moves at rate of 11.45ft/s, determine the shear
32.2𝑓𝑡/𝑠 3 stress experienced by the fluid.

𝝆 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈𝒔/𝒇𝒕𝟑 Solution:

Use E.1.10 to directly compute for the shearing stress.

5. Viscosity 𝜇: A property of a fluid that describes the
amount of resistance of fluid to shearing stress. Consider 𝑉 𝑙𝑏.𝑠 11.45 𝑠
𝑓𝑡

two parallel plates (as shown below) with x distance apart. 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑥 → 8.50𝑥10−3 𝑓𝑡 2 ∙ 1𝑓𝑡
0.0046𝑖𝑛∙12𝑖𝑛
The space between these two plates is filled with fluid. As
one plate (upper plate) move towards to the right direction
at velocity V parallel to the second plate; three assumptions 𝝉 = 𝟐𝟓𝟑. 𝟖𝟗𝒍𝒃/𝒇𝒕𝟐
are made.
6. Surface Tension (𝜎): At any appreciable distance below
1. Fluid particles directly in contact with the moving plate the surface of a liquid the molecules are attracted toward
have identical velocity V to that plate each other by equal forces. The molecules near the surface,
2. The rate of change of velocity V (also refers as velocity however, are subjected to a downward attraction that is not
gradient) is uniform perpendicular to the direction of V. balanced by the upward attraction. This causes a film or
3. Shearing stress 𝜏 in the fluid is proportional to the rate of skin to form on the surface and results in many interesting
change of V phenomena.

Surface tension in film surfaces refers to the surface energy

𝑉 𝑑𝑣 per unit area of interface given by:
𝑣 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 𝐹
E.1.13 𝜎=
𝐿

Due to surface tension, there exists a change of pressure

By similar triangles we found out that: (∆𝑝) across a curved interface (film where two or more
liquids interact) which is represented by the following
𝑉 𝑑𝑣
E.1.8 = 𝑑𝑥 equations: R refers to the radius of curvature.
𝑥

Using the assumption 3, we can say that: For the interior of a liquid cylinder
𝜎
𝑑𝑣 E.1.14 ∆𝑝 = 𝑅
E.1.9 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 [N/m2]

For a raindrop or any spherical droplet

Where 𝜇 is our proportionality constant which we will be
referring as the coefficient of viscosity also refers as 2𝜎
dynamic or absolute viscosity. Substituting equation 1.8 to E.1.15 ∆𝑝 = 𝑅
equation 1.9 we have:
“Friendly note” that the radius of curvature is given by the
𝑉
E.1.10 𝜏= 𝜇𝑥 or formula :

𝜏𝑥 𝑠 3
𝑑𝑦
E.1.11 𝜇= [𝑁 𝑚2 ] [1+(𝑑𝑥)2 ]2
𝑉
E.1.16 𝑅= 𝑑2 𝑦
Equation E.1.11 then defines as the amount of force 𝑑𝑥2
necessary to move a flat surface unit area at a unit velocity
V parallel to another flat surface unit area at a unit distance 7. Capillarity Action is explained by
apart with fluid in between these surfaces. the phenomenon both by adhesion and 𝑟
surface tension. Capillarity is used to
6. Kinematic viscosity (v): Ratio of coefficient of dynamic measure both adhesion and cohesion 𝜃
𝜎
viscosity 𝜇 to the density 𝜌 of the fluid. of molecules of liquids. Capillarity
oftentimes refers to the rise or fall of
𝜇 liquid in small tubes. ℎ
E.1.12 𝑣= [m2/s]
𝜌

From our free figure, we can use the

static equations to derive our rise or 𝑊
EXMAMPLE 1.3 | An oil having a coefficient viscosity of fall of the liquid.
8.50x10-3 lb.-s/ft2 at 20°C is sheared between two parallel plates
spaced at 0.0046in to each other. If the lower plate is fixed while
 CE PRACTICE I
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∑ 𝐹𝑦 ↑+ = 0 ℎ𝑠 = 20𝑚𝑚 − ℎ
ℎ𝑠 = 20𝑚𝑚 − (−1.47𝑚𝑚) ℎ
𝒉𝒔 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟒𝟕𝒎𝒎 𝜃
ℎ𝑠
∑ 𝐹𝑦 ↑+ = 𝜎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 − 𝑊 = 0 𝜎 20𝑚𝑚

𝜎𝑦 ∙ 𝜋𝑑 − 𝛾𝑉 = 0
𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(𝜋𝑑) − 𝛾(𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ) = 0
8. Compressibility. Gases in nature are highly compressible
𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(𝜋𝑑) with the equation below that represents the
ℎ=
𝑑 relationship between volume (V), absolute pressure
𝛾𝜋( 2)2
(p), and temperature (T).
4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
E.1.17 ℎ= E.1.18
𝜇
= 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝛾𝑑 𝜌

Take note that the temperature in this equation uses Kelvin

EXAMPLE 1.4 | A water strider is an or K = 273 + °C while R is the characteristic of gas constant
insect known to float to water surface. at m2/s2K
Its foot transmits a vertical force of
2.29x10-4 N due to its own weight. The For any given gas, R can be computed as:
foot is 4mm in diameter and makes an
angle of contact from vertical at 75°. 8312
E.1.19 𝑅=
What is the surface tension of the water 𝑀
at that foot in particular?
M in E.1.19 is the molecular weight of gas, for air it is
Similar to the derivation of capillary rise, this problem can 28.97.
be solved using the same principle since drawing the literal
foot of this water bender is hard or one can directly use Another basic equation for perfect gas is:
E.1.14 𝜌1 𝜌
E.1.20 = 𝜌𝑛2
𝜌1𝑛 2
∑ 𝐹𝑦 ↑+ = 𝜎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 − 𝑊 = 0
Although water is commonly assumed to be
−4
𝜎𝑦 ∙ 𝜋𝑑 − 2.29𝑥10 𝑁 = 0 incompressible, it is actually 100 time as compressible
compared to steel.
8𝑚𝑚 1𝑚 1𝑘𝑁
𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠75°(𝜋 ∙ ∙ ) = 2.29𝑥10−4 𝑁 ∙
2 1000𝑚𝑚 1000𝑁

𝝈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟒𝒌𝑵/𝒎

EXAMPLE 1.5 | Mercury stands in a glass tube of 5.0mm

diameter at a height of 20.0mm. What is the true static height
given that the surface tension of Mercury is 0.32N/m and its
contact angle is 140°.

4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
E.1.17 ℎ= 𝛾𝑑

𝑁 1𝑘𝑁
4 (0.32 𝑚 ∙ 1000𝑁 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠140
ℎ=
𝑘𝑁 1𝑚
9.81 ∙ 13.6 ∙ 5.0𝑚𝑚 ∙ 1000𝑚𝑚
𝑚3

ℎ = −0.00147𝑚

A negative h only indicates that the liquid is not concave

upward but rather concave downward as hinted by the
contact angle, referring to the figure. To solve for the true
static height:
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CHAPTER II | PRINCIPLES OF Benzene

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
B

10cm
A
1. Pressure (P) is the amount of normal force exerted by a

41cm
fluid per unit area.

21cm

15cm
9cm
𝐹
E.2.1 𝑃=𝐴

Unit pressure (p) on the other hand refers to the intensity Water
of the pressure (P) at any point in a fluid is the amount of
Kerosene
pressure per unit area. (More on this next chapter)
Mercury

𝑝5 𝑝1
𝑝1 = 𝑝2 = 𝑝3 = 𝑝4 = 𝑝5
Since the problem is specifically asking the pressure
𝑝2
difference between A to B, we will do the summation from
𝑝4 A to B (follow the order). Another thing to remember is only
𝑝3 take the h (height or head) between the difference of
Pressure can be referred to in two terms: Absolute Pressure
elevation between two liquids going to the succeeding
and Relative Pressure.
liquid and not the total distance.
2. Atmospheric Pressure referred to as the pressure caused
Now take note of the signs of each gage pressure, for
by the weight of air above the measure point. The following
visualization use the arrows as a guide on the figure. Again,
are standard atmospheric pressure:
going down is positive and going up is negative, as to the
question where to start and where to end always start in
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎 [kN/m2]
order of the problem in this case from A to B then finish in
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 14.696𝑝𝑠𝑖 [lb/in2]
the difference of elevation for each liquid transition.
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 [bar] 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒 − 𝑃𝐻𝑔 − 𝑃𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 + 𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝐵

𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = −𝑃𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒 + 𝑃𝐻𝑔 + 𝑃𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 − 𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

3. Relative Pressure, also known as Gage Pressure, is the
1
measurement of pressure in reference to the local 1𝑚
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = ∑ 𝛾ℎ; 𝑍 = 9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 ∙ 100𝑐𝑚 ← Factored the 𝛾 and
atmospheric pressure (relative system). One fine example conversion factor for cm to m
of local measurement of Relative Pressure is from
Manometers problems. =𝑍[−(0.88 ∙ 21) + (13.6 ∙ 9) + (0.82 ∙ (41 − 9)) − (1 ∙ (41 − 15))]

E.2.2 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = ∑ 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑷𝑨 − 𝑷𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟗𝟔𝒌𝑷𝒂

E.2.3 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = ∑ 𝛾ℎ
EXAMPLE 2.2 | Calculate the weight of the piston (1m
1Note: diameter) if the pressure reading on the gage is 250.0kPa
Measuring gage pressure when going down is positive while
negative when going up. absolute. Use oil s.g. = 0.86
z
4. Absolute Pressure is the measured intensity of 2pressure
above absolute zero and is generally given by: 1m

E.2.4 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

2Note: There is no negative Absolute Pressure Oil

EXAMPLE 2.1 | Determine the pressure difference between

points A and B. Use specific gravity for the following:

Benzene 0.88 Take note that the problem specifically indicates that the
Mercury 13.6 gage reading is an absolute pressure or
Kerosene 0.82
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 E.2.4
To solve this kind of problem, we will be using E.2.3, you
since the problem gives specific gravity. 250kPa = Pgage + 101.325kPa

Pgage = 148.675kPa
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Similar to the previous problem, starting from the piston to
the gage we have: Solving for h we have:

𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 − 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 E.2.2.1 𝒉 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝒎

To get the pressure of due to the weight of the piston, we

can use the formula of E.2.1.: EXAMPLE 2.4 | A Hydraulic jack shown is filled with oil
at 850kg/m3. Neglecting the weight of the two pistons, what
𝐹 𝑊 force F on the handle is required to support the 1.5 Metric
E.2.1 𝑃 = 𝐴 → 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 = →E.2.2.1
𝐴 Tons weight? F
𝑊
− 𝛾ℎ = 148.675𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 50mm 450mm
𝐴
𝑊 A B
− (9.81𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 ∙ 0.86 ∙ 1𝑚) = 148.675𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
1 2 75mm∅
4 𝜋(1𝑚) Oil 25mm∅

Solving for W we have:

W = 123.395kN
Starting at the handle with force F we can solve for the
reaction exerted on the 25mm∅ piston by Summation of
EXAMPLE 2.3 | A mercury barometer at the top of a moments at the hinge A assuming that reaction at B is
mountain reads 700mmHg and at the same time the pointing upward.
barometer at its base reads 800mmHg. Assuming that the unit
weight of air is 12N/m3 and specific gravity of mercury is ∑ 𝑀𝐴 ↻+ = 0
given as 13.6, what is the approximate height of the mountain?

z 700mmHg ∑ 𝑀𝐴↻+ = 𝐹(50 + 450)(𝑚𝑚) − 𝑅𝐵 (50𝑚𝑚) = 0

𝑅𝐵 = 10𝐹 E.2.4.1

Applying E.2.3 starting from hinge B to the 75mm∅ piston:

E.2.3 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = ∑ 𝛾ℎ
z 800mmHg
Since there is no difference in height h between mercury
Similar to problem E.2.1, we start at top of the mountain all the
way down to the foot of the mountain. level at 25mm∅ and 75mm∅ we can say:

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑝 + 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 E.2.3.1 𝑃𝐵 + 0 = 𝑃𝐴 → 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴 E.2.4.2

To take the pressure at the top and bottom using barometric Using E.2.1. for the reaction at B and pressure due to the weight
reading we can modify E.2.2 of 75mm∅ piston, we have:
𝐹
E.2.2 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = ∑ 𝛾ℎ E.2.1 𝑃=𝐴

Or 𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ, where in this equation, h is the height of the 𝐹 𝑅𝐵 10𝐹

𝑃𝐵 = = = → 𝐸. 2.4.2
reading of the mercury. For top its 700mm and bottom 𝐴 𝐴 1 2
𝜋(25𝑚𝑚)
4
800mm thus:
1000𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑘𝑁 1𝑚 𝑘𝑁 𝐹 𝑊 1.5𝑀𝑇 ∙ 1𝑀𝑇 ∙ 9.81 𝑠 2
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 9.81 2 ∙ 13.6 ∙ 700𝑚𝑚 ∙ = 93.3912 2 𝑃𝐴 = = = → 𝐸. 2.4.2
𝑚 1000𝑚𝑚 𝑚 𝐴 𝐴 1
𝜋(25𝑚𝑚)2
4
𝑘𝑁 1𝑚 𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 9.81 2
∙ 13.6 ∙ 800𝑚𝑚 ∙ = 106.7328 2 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴
𝑚 1000𝑚𝑚 𝑚

Substituting these values to E.2.3.1 plus the 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝛾𝑎𝑖𝑟 ℎ we 1000𝑘𝑔 𝑚

10𝐹 1.5𝑀𝑇 ∙ ∙ 9.81 2
have: 1𝑀𝑇 𝑠
=
1 2 1 2
4 𝜋(25𝑚𝑚) 4 𝜋(25𝑚𝑚)
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑝 + 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑭 = 𝟏𝟔𝟑. 𝟓𝑵
𝑘𝑁 𝑁 1𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
93.3912 𝑚2 + [12 𝑚2 ∙ 1000𝑁 ∙ ℎ] = 106.7328 𝑚2 \
 CE PRACTICE I
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CHAPTER III | HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

𝑑𝐹 = 𝜔𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
IN SURFACES
The total pressure is now:
1. The total hydrostatic pressure (F) on any plane’s surface
is equal to the product of the area of the surface and the unit
pressure at its center of gravity. This is also referred as ∫ 𝑑𝐹 = ∫ 𝜔𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
Hydrostatic force.
𝐹 = 𝜔𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∫ 𝑑𝐴 E.3.4
If Unit pressure (p) is the same at every point in a fluid per
unit area therefore, we have:
From differential calculus the center of gravity is given by:
𝐹
𝑝=𝐴 E.3.1 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 𝐴𝑦̅ E.3.5

However, if the case where unit pressure is different at Incorporating E.3.5 → E.3.4 we have:
different points; the unit pressure is equal to the total
pressure (P) on a small differential area surrounding the 𝐹 = 𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝐴𝑦̅ E.3.6
point divided by the differential area or:
Since ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and rearranging in terms of 𝑦̅ → E.3.6
𝑑𝐹
𝑝= E.3.2
𝑑𝐴

𝜃
h and y for differential strip
ℎ̅ and 𝑦̅ for the center of gravity (c.g.)
ℎ𝑝 and 𝑦𝑝 for the center of pressure (c.p.)

ℎ𝑝 ̅
ℎ ℎ
𝑦 ̅
𝑦 𝑦𝑝
𝑨 𝑨
𝑥

𝑑𝑦
𝑐. 𝑔

𝑐. 𝑝

To solve for the unit pressure, say on a single strip of a plane ℎ̅

surface A on this ridiculous big figure, using 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ, where 𝐹 = 𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∙ 𝐴( )
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
h is the distance from the water surface to h distance to the
strip we have: 𝐹 = 𝜔ℎ̅𝐴 *E.3.7

𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ *Take note that the term 𝜔ℎ̅ in E.3.7 is the unit pressure at the
center of gravity of A. In some references they use P for total
Or we can say in terms of the inclined distance y using hydrostatic pressure (hydrostatic force).
triangles and given that it is submerged in a liquid with unit
weight 𝜔 we have: Other notable formula includes:
𝐼𝑆
𝑝 = (𝜔)(𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑦𝑝 = E.3.8
𝑆𝑆

𝑝 = 𝜔𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 E.3.3
Where IS is the moment of Inertia and SS is the statical
moment or 𝐴𝑦̅ both with respect to the water surface axis.
The total pressure on the strip using E.3.1 is therefore:
𝐼
𝑑𝐹 𝑒 = 𝑆𝑔 E.3.9
𝑝= E.3.1 𝑆
𝑑𝐴

𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝𝑑𝐴 → E.3.3
 CE PRACTICE I
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Ig is the moment of inertia of area with respect to the variables with h are the normal distances from our free surface (water
horizontal axis through its center of gravity and lying in its level) while y variables are the inclined distances from the free surface.
plane. e is the distance between c.g. and c.p.

2
EXAMPLE 3.1 | A vertical rectangular plate 2m wide 0.3𝑚 (0.7𝑚)
3
and 1.2m high, with its top submerged on water 3m
deep. Determine the total resultant acting on one side 𝑐. 𝑔
and the location of center of pressure. 𝑦̅
0.7𝑚

We know that the center of gravity of a triangle is either 2/3 of its side on
3𝑚 one point or 1/3 of its side on the other. Based on the figure we can say
that the inclined distance between the c.g. and the water level is:
2𝑚
2
𝑦̅ = 0.3𝑚 + (0.7𝑚)
3
1.2𝑚 𝑐. 𝑔 𝑦̅ = 0.7667𝑚
𝑭 𝑐. 𝑝
To get the corresponding ℎ̅ we need to get the angle 𝜃, using basic
trigonometric functions:
𝐹 = 𝜔ℎ̅𝐴 E.3.7

𝑘𝑁 1.2𝑚 0.9𝑚
𝐹 = (9.81 )(3𝑚 + )(1.2𝑚 ∙ 2𝑚) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑚3 2 0.3𝑚 0.3𝑚 + 0.7𝑚

𝑭 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟕𝟓𝟖𝟒𝒌𝑵 0.9𝑚 𝜃 = 64.158°

𝑐. 𝑔
𝑒=𝑆
𝐼𝑔
E.3.9 0.7𝑚
𝑆
𝜃
𝑏ℎ3 (2𝑚)(1.2𝑚)3
Using the computed angle, we can get the
𝑒 = 12 = 12 = 0.0333 ℎ̅ as shown on the figure on the left.
𝐴𝑦̅ 1.2𝑚
(2𝑚 ∙ 1.2𝑚)(3𝑚 + 2 ) ̅
𝑦

̅ ℎ̅
1.2𝑚 ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
ℎ𝑝 = 3𝑚 + + 𝑒 = 3.633𝑚 𝑦̅
2 𝜃 𝑐. 𝑔

𝒉𝒑 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟑𝟑𝒎 𝜃 ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

ℎ̅ = (0.7667𝑚)sin (64.158°)
EXAMPLE 3.2 | Determine the resultant force acting on ℎ̅ = 0.69𝑚
the 0.70m high and 0.70m wide triangular gate shown in
the figure and its line of action (c.p.). 𝑘𝑁 1
𝐹 = 𝜔ℎ̅𝐴 = 9.81 3
(0.69𝑚) ( ∙ 0.70𝑚 ∙ 0.70𝑚)
𝑚 2

𝑭 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓𝟖𝒌𝑵
0.3𝑚
0.9𝑚 𝑏ℎ3
𝐼𝑔
𝑒 = = 36
0.7𝑚 𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑦̅

(0.70𝑚)(0.70𝑚)3
𝜃 36
𝑒=
1
(2 ∙ 0.70𝑚 ∙ 0.70𝑚) (0.7667𝑚)
𝐹 = 𝜔ℎ̅𝐴 E.3.7 𝑒 = 0.0355𝑚

Unlike from the previous problem we can not direcly subistitue the given 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 + 𝑦̅
values to our equation E.3.7. Given the orientation of the gate (plane 𝑦𝑝 = 0.0355𝑚 + 0.7667𝑚
surface) we must calculate first ℎ̅ . Reminder (see prevoius page) that
𝒚𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟐𝒎
 CE PRACTICE I
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Friendly note just in case you are wondering; the total hydrostatic 1
𝐹𝐻 = 62.4𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 ∙ (20𝑓𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛60°) ∙ (20𝑓𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛60°)(30𝑓𝑡)
force (F) is applied in the center of pressure (c.p.) and not on the 2
center of gravity (c.g.) 𝑭𝑯 = 𝟐𝟖𝟎, 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒍𝒃

We can utilize the formula for e to get our 𝑦̅ but since the projected area
2. Hydrostatic pressure on curved surfaces is conveniently
topmost edge is touching the water surface the water pressure is of a
determined through horizontal and vertical components of triangular shape hence:
total hydrostatic pressure (F). 1Two rules are established in
calculating both the horizontal and vertical components 2
plus a special note: 𝑦𝑝 = (20𝑓𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛60)
3
𝒚𝒑 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝒇𝒕
A. “Horizontal component, along any horizontal axis, of
the total hydrostatic pressure on any surface is equal to the For the vertical component the only force acting is the weight of the water
total pressure on the projection of the surface on a vertical resting above the gate sector this time around by tracing two vertical
plane which is normal to the chosen axis. The horizontal lines from A and B to the free surface. By some trigonometry work, we
component can be found at the center of the pressure of the can get the volume of the water by:
projection.” 𝑀 𝐵

B. “Vertical component, of the total hydrostatic pressure 20𝑓𝑡

on any surface is equal to the weight of that volume of the
liquid extending vertically from the surface to the free
60°
surface of the liquid. Vertical component can be found on 𝐴 𝑁
the centroid of the volume.” 𝑂
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑁 = ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑂 − ̅̅̅̅
𝑁𝑂
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑁 = 20𝑓𝑡 − 20𝑓𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠60
C. “Special note, if the liquid is underneath the surface, the ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝑁 = 10𝑓𝑡
pressure acts upward on the surface, and the magnitude of
the vertical component, is equal to the weight of the 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐴𝐴𝑀𝐵𝑁 − (𝐴𝐴𝐵𝑂 − 𝐴𝐵𝑁𝑂 )
imaginary volume of the liquid extending vertically from the 𝜋(20)2 1
surface to the level of the liquid. The centroid is the same 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = (20𝑠𝑖𝑛60 ∙ 10) − ( ∙ 60 − ∙ 10 ∙ 20𝑠𝑖𝑛60)
360 2
as the that of B.” 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 50.368𝑓𝑡 2

Example 3.3 | A sector gate as shown consists of 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝛾 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝑚𝑔
E.1.1
cylindrical surface of which AC is the trace supported by 𝑉

a structural frame hinged at O. The length of the gate, 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝐹 = 𝛾𝑉

perpendicular to the paper, is 30ft. Determine the 𝐹𝑉 = 62.4𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3 ∙ (50.368𝑓𝑡 2 ∙ 30𝑓𝑡)
amount and location of the horizontal and vertical 𝑭𝑽 = 𝟗𝟒, 𝟐𝟖𝟖. 𝟖𝟗𝟔𝒍𝒃
components of the total hydrostatic pressure on the
gate. 𝐶 To solve for the location of the centroid of the vertical force, we can use
the method of summing up of area moments with respect to free ̅̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝑀.

20 ft 𝑥̅ ∑ 𝐴 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖 𝑥̅ 𝑖 E.3.3.1

60° 𝐴𝐴𝑀𝐵𝑁 = 20𝑠𝑖𝑛60(10) = 173.205

𝐴 𝜋(20)2
𝑂 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝑂
̆ = ∙ 60 = 209.44
20 ft 360
1
For the horizontal component, we can use E.3.7 after following note A. 𝐴𝐵𝑁𝑂 = (10)(20𝑠𝑖𝑛60) = 86.603
2
In the figure below a projection results a rectangular shape by tracing 𝑥̅ ∑ 𝐴 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖 𝑥̅ 𝑖 E.3.3.1
two horizontal lines from point A and C from the sector gate parallel to
the free surface. ∑ 𝐴 = 173.205 − (209.44 − 86.603) = 50.368𝑓𝑡 2 → 𝐸. 3.3.1

𝐶 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖 𝑥̅ 𝑖 =
10 2
= 173.205 ( 2 ) − [209.44 (20 − 3(60∙ 𝜋 ) (20𝑠𝑖𝑛60)) −
20𝑓𝑡 180
1
𝑐. 𝑔 86.603(10 + 3 (10))]
𝑐. 𝑝 𝑛
60°
𝐴 ∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝑥̅𝑖 = 141.338𝑓𝑡 3 → 𝐸. 3.3.1
𝑂
𝑖=1
30𝑓𝑡 𝑛

𝑥̅ ∑ 𝐴 = ∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝑥̅ 𝑖
𝐹 = 𝜔ℎ̅𝐴 E.3.7
𝑖=1

1
Wisler and Woodburn, Hydraulics 5th edition, p51-52
 CE PRACTICE I
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𝑥̅ (50.368𝑓𝑡 2 ) = 141.338𝑓𝑡 3 4. Maximum and minimum base pressure (qmin / qmax):

̅ = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟎𝟔𝒇𝒕
𝒙 or 2.8ft 𝑅𝑦 6𝑒
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑞𝑚𝑖𝑛 = − [1 ± ] E.3.13
𝐵 𝐵
Interestingly one can also compute for the location of vertical
components using similar triangles between the total hydrostatic 𝑒 = |𝑥 − |
𝐵
E.3.14
pressure vectors and the computed 𝑦𝑝 bypassing the laborious process 2
of summation of area moment.
e distance between the centerline of the foundation or
base of the dam to the location of the total base
𝑭𝑽 𝐵
𝑀 reaction (Ry)
17.32 − 𝑦𝑝
𝑹 x distance of the location of the total base reaction (Ry)
𝑦𝑝 to the toe of the dam
̅
20 − 𝑥
17.32𝑓𝑡 B Length of the foundation or base of the dam
𝑭𝑯 𝑹
𝐴 𝑂 𝑭𝑽 The shape of the of the uplift pressure depends on the value
̅
𝑥 of computed e:
𝑭𝑯
20𝑓𝑡
Condition Shape of the uplift pressure
17.32 − 𝑦𝑝 20 − 𝑥̅
𝐹𝑉
=
𝐹𝐻
𝐵 pressure is trapezoidal E.3.15
𝑒<
6
280,800(17.32 − 11.55) = 94,288.896(20 − 𝑥̅ ) 𝐵 pressure is triangular E.3.16
𝑒=
6
̅ = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟏𝟓𝒇𝒕
𝒙 or 22.8ft
𝐵 two triangular pressure E.3.17
𝑒>
6
3. Dams are constructed for the purpose of retaining or
impounding water. Hydrostatic analysis on dams revolves
around two major areas: Example 3.4 | A concrete dam retaining water shown, has
a specific concrete weight of 23.5kN/m3. Assume a
a. Dams are subject to sliding horizontally on its hydrostatic uplift varies uniformly from full hydrostatic
foundation. pressure at the heel of the dam to zero at the toe and the
b. Dams are subject to overturning on its toe or downstream coefficient of friction between the dam and the
edge. foundation is 0.45.

Dams are designed to counter these two effects through a. Factor of safety against sliding
friction (against sliding) using its own weight and righting b. Factor of safety against overturning
moment (against overturning) due to opposing moments. c. Pressure intensity at the heel and hoe (uplift pressure)
d. Base reaction magnitude
Other factors that contribute to the hydrostatic effect on 4𝑚
dams are seepage which creates an uplift pressure as water
escapes under the foundation of dams. It is assumed that the 1𝑚 3𝑚
uplift pressure varies linearly from the heel to the toe, which 𝑾𝟒 𝑾𝟏
further reduces the stability against overturning and sliding.
𝑾𝟐
12𝑚
1. Factor of safety against sliding (FSS)

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 3𝑚
𝐹𝑆𝑆 = E.3.10
𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑾𝟑 𝑡𝑜𝑒
3𝑚
2. Factor of safety against overturning (FSO) ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑒
15𝑚
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 It is convenient to solve dam problems first by tabulating both the results
𝐹𝑆𝑂 = 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
E.3.11 of computations and needed data as shown below additionally, two
things are considered here: the weight of the dam and the total
3. Total base reaction (Ry) hydrostatic pressure acting on the dam. Weights (see top right figure)
will be computed for each individual shape that makes up the dam plus,
if possible (such as in this problem), the weight of the water along 31m
𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝐹𝑉 E.3.12 strip together with the moment arm to the toe.

2 3
Rounding off values from the computation, result in varying decimal values For the simplification of computation purposes for long-repeating structural
between two procedures. elements one may consider 1m strip or 1ft strip.
 CE PRACTICE I
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Mom. Arm to 𝑅 2 = 𝐹𝑦 2 + 𝐹𝐻 2
Weight (kN) x 1m 𝑭𝑯
toe (m)
𝑊1 = (4)(15)(23.5) = 𝟏, 𝟒𝟏𝟎 8 + 2 = 10 𝑅 = √2889.182 + 961.382 𝑭𝒚
1 (2/3) (8) = 16/3
𝑊2 = ( ) (8)(12)(23.5) = 𝟏, 𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝑹 = 𝟑𝟎𝟒𝟒. 𝟗𝟑𝟐𝒌𝑵 𝑹
2
𝑊3 = (3)(15)(23.5) = 𝟏, 𝟎𝟓𝟕. 𝟓 15/2 = 7.5
𝑊4 = (3)(11)(1)(9.81) = 𝟑𝟐𝟑. 𝟕𝟑 12 + (3/2) = 13.5 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝐹𝑆𝑆 = E.3.10
𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
∑ 𝑊 = 3919.23

𝐹𝑉 = 3,919.23𝑘𝑁 Frictional force is given by: 𝐹𝑓𝑟 = 𝜇𝑊

𝐹 = 𝜔ℎ̅𝐴 E.3.7 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

14 𝐹𝑆𝑆 =
𝐹𝐻
𝐹𝐻 = (9.81) ( ) (14 ∙ 1)
2
𝐹𝐻 = 961.38𝑘𝑁 𝜇𝐹𝑦 0.45(2889.18)
𝐹𝑆𝑆 = =
𝐹𝐻 961.38
The problem specifically assumes the existence of uplift pressure and it
is important to remember that this affects the stability of the sliding and 𝑭𝑺𝑺 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟐𝟒
overturning of dams, therefore:
Both FH with Fuplift and FV have a rotational effect on the dam: FH with
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = ∑ 𝛾ℎ E.2.3 Fuplift is trying to overturn the dam by pushing to right and upward
𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝛾ℎ respectively while the FV is trying to stabilize it using due to the weight of
𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 9.81(14) the dam with its opposite rotation. This behavior is explained by getting
the summation of moment at the toe.
2
𝑷𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 = 𝟏𝟑𝟕. 𝟑𝟒𝒌𝑷𝒂 𝑥̅ = (15) 𝑭𝑯
3 𝑭𝑽
𝑴𝑶
𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑒
𝑴𝑹
𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 15𝑚
̅
𝑥
𝑭𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒕
15𝑚 ∑𝑡𝑜𝑒 𝑀↻+ ; Solving the moment for overturning and righting separately:
𝐹
𝑃=𝐴 E.2.1
𝐹𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴 For overturning moment:
137.34𝑘𝑁 1 2 1
𝐹𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 = ( ∙ 15𝑚 ∙ 1𝑚) ∑ 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐹𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 ( ) (15) + 𝐹𝐻 ( ) (14)
𝑚2 2 3 3
2 1
𝐹𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 1,030.05𝑘𝑁 𝑀𝑂 = 1030.05𝑘𝑁 ( ) (15) + 961.38𝑘𝑁( )(14)
3 3
𝑀𝑂 = 14,786.94𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
𝑭𝑯
𝑭𝑽
For righting moment:

𝑡𝑜𝑒 16
𝑀𝑅 = 1,410(10) + 1,128 ( ) + 1,057.5(7.5)
3
+ 323.73(13.5)
𝑀𝑅 = −32,417.60𝑘𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
15𝑚
The negative sign indicates counterclockwise rotation at the toe.
𝑭𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒕
The effect of FH and FV on the dam can be transferred to the foundation
Using the static equation we can get the net vertical reaction but in 4opposite direction at a point somewhere on the base of the dam,
Fy: from here we can say:
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐹𝑆𝑂 = E.3.11
∑ 𝐹𝑦 ↑+ = 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 − 𝐹𝑉 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

32417.60
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 − 𝐹𝑉 𝐹𝑆𝑂 =
14786.94
𝐹𝑦 = 1,030.05𝑘𝑁 − 3,919.23𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝑦 = 2889.18𝑘𝑁 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑) 𝑭𝑺𝑶 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟑

4
Newton’s third law of motion
 CE PRACTICE I
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Take note: If one wants to determine the location of the
resultant forces of the dam you have to assume that the
summation of moments should be 0 or in mathematical
sense; overturning moment is equal to the righting moment.
𝑭𝑯
𝑭𝑽

𝑡𝑜𝑒

̅
𝑥
15𝑚
𝑭𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒕

∑ 𝑀↻+ = 0
𝑡𝑜𝑒

2 1
𝐹𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 ( ) (15) + 𝐹𝐻 ( ) (14) − 𝐹𝑉 (𝑥̅ ) = 0
3 3