MITE Moodabidri Engineering Physics

MODULE – 4 : Electrical Properties of Materials

Syllabus:
Conductors: Quantum Free Electron Theory of Metals, Density of States, Fermi-energy, Fermi factor,
Variation of Fermi factor with temperature, Electron concentration (qualitative discussion), Expression
for electrical conductivity.
Semiconductors: Expression for the electron and hole concentrations, Expression for electrical
conductivity in semiconductor.
Hall effect, expression for Hall coefficient.
Dielectrics: Polarization and its types in dielectric materials, Internal field, Clausius – Mossotti equation,
Numeral Problems.

CONDUCTORS
Free–electron concept
Metal is made up of atoms and these atoms consist of valence electrons, which are responsible for
electrical conduction in the bulk state of the metal. For e.g.: A copper atom consists of 29 electrons out of
which 28 electrons are bound in the 3 shells forms the core and one electron remaining in the fourth shell is
the free valence electron. As a whole an atom is neutral.
When a large number of copper atoms join to form a metal the boundaries of the neighbouring atoms
slightly overlap on each other. Due to this, the valence electrons find continuity from atom to atom and can
move easily throughout the body of the metal, but are restricted within the boundaries of the solid.

Since each atom contributes equal number of electrons, there will be a very large number of electrons
which are free in a metal. Such electrons are called as free electrons and they account for the bulk properties

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of the metal such as electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity etc. They are also called conduction
electrons.

The disconnection of the valence electrons results in a virtual loss of a negative charge for that atom
so that it becomes a positive ion. The array of such ions forms a three-dimensional structure called a lattice.

Under thermal equilibrium conditions, the free electrons in a solid are in a state of random motion.
1 2 3
At temperature T, they possess an average kinetic energy given by mvth = 2 kT
2

Where vth is the mean thermal velocity.

Quantum Free Electron Theory of Metals

In 1928, Arnold Sommerfeld succeeded in overcoming many of the drawbacks of the classical free electron
theory by using Pauli’s exclusion principle and Fermi-Dirac statistics is known as quantum free electron
theory. The following are the assumptions of quantum free electron theory.

The main assumptions of quantum free electron theory are:

1. The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized. They can have only discrete energy values.
2. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed levels occur as per Pauli’s exclusion principle which
states that no two electrons can have same set of quantum numbers.
3. The distribution of energy among the free electrons is according to Fermi-Dirac statistics.
4. The electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confined within its boundaries.
5. The attraction between the electrons and the lattice ions and the repulsion between the electrons are
ignored.

Energy bands in solids

• The discrete energy level of an atom becomes bands during the formation of solid due to mutual
influence of constituent atoms
• Each band consists of a large number of energy levels which correspond to a range of energy values.
• The bands are separated by certain gaps called forbidden bands or energy band gaps.
• The electron can occupy only those energy levels which lie within an energy band.
• Because of quantization rules there is a limit on the number of electrons which can fill an energy band.
• If an energy band contains the maximum quota of electrons, it is said to be filled band
• An empty band or partially filled band provides energy levels to which electrons can be energized from
lower levels or bands.

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• In every energy band diagram, there will be a band called valence band below which all the bands are
occupied and above which all the bands are empty.
• The empty band which is immediately above the valence is called conduction band.
• The gap between the valence band the conduction band is called the forbidden band or energy gap.

Fermi Energy:
There are ‘N’ allowed energy levels for free electrons in a metal which are separated by
energy differences that are the characteristics of the material and are quantized. As per Pauli’s exclusion
principle, each allowed energy level can accommodate a maximum of two electrons with opposite spin. The
filling up of the electrons in the energy levels should be undertaken from the lowest energy level. So, in each
energy level there are two electrons one with spin up and other with spin down. However there are still
higher energy levels left vacant.
“The energy of the highest occupied energy level at zero degree absolute is called Fermi energy
(EF) and the energy level is referred as Fermi level”
At absolute zero temperature i.e. when the metal is not under the influence of any electrical field or
thermal energy, no electrons will be present above the Fermi level. They are completely empty and those
levels below Fermi level are completely filled.

Density of States

In a solid material, the permitted energy levels are in terms of bands. Each band is spread over an energy
range of few eVs and the number of energy levels in each band is extremely large. Because of such
distribution, the energy values appear to be virtually continuous over the band. A closer look reveals that
the energy levels are not evenly distributed in the band. i.e. the density of energy levels in the band varies
with the energy. This is realized through a function known as density of states function denoted as g (E).
“It is the number of allowed energy levels per unit energy interval in the band associated with the material

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per unit volume”.

The number of states in an energy range E and E+dE for the electrons in a 3- dimensional solid of unit
volume or Density of states in the energy interval dE at ‘E’ is given by

3⁄
8√2𝜋𝑚 2 1⁄
𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ( ) 𝐸− 2 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3

Fermi – Dirac statistics:

In a metal, there is large number of free electrons and each of them possesses an energy
corresponding to the energy state of the valence band. Under thermal equilibrium, the free electrons acquire
energy obeying the statistical rule known as Fermi – Dirac statistics. The electrons are identical particles
and indistinguishable particles. Fermi – Dirac statistics permit the evaluation of the probability of finding
electrons occupying energy levels in a certain energy range. This evaluation is done through a function
called the Fermi factor.
Fermi Factor:
At temperatures above absolute zero, the material will be receiving thermal energy from the
surroundings. So, the electrons just below the Fermi level absorb the thermal energy and will occupy the
higher empty levels. The electrons occupying energy levels far below the Fermi level cannot absorb this
energy because there are no unoccupied higher energy levels into which the electrons can come into, when
their energies increase by small amount.
Though such excitations seem to be random the resulting distribution of electrons in various
energy levels after excitation will be systematic. The distribution is governed by a statistical function when
the system is in thermal equilibrium (steady state).
The probability ‘f(E)’ that a given energy state with energy ‘E’is occupied at a steady
temperature is given by
𝟏
𝒇(𝑬) = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 +𝟏

Here f(E) is called Fermi factor.

“Fermi factor is defined as the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material
in thermal equilibrium”.

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Dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and effect on the occupancy of energy levels:
The probability ‘f(E)’ that a given energy state with energy ‘E’ is occupied at a steady
temperature is given by
𝟏
𝒇(𝑬) = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 +𝟏

The different cases of distribution are as follows;

CASE1: Probability of occupation for E < EF at T = 0K
When T = 0K and E < EF, we have
1 1
𝑓(𝐸 ) = 𝑒 −∞ +1 = 0+1 = 1

∴ f(E) = 1, for E < EF

It means that the energy level is certainly occupied and E < EF applies to all the energy levels below ‘EF’.
CASE2: Probability of occupation for E > EF at T = 0K
When T = 0K and E < EF, we have
1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝑒 +∞ +1 = ∞+1 = 0

∴ f(E) = 0, for E > EF

∴ At T = 0K, all the energy levels above the Fermi level are unoccupied.
Thus, at T = 0K, the variation of f(E) for different energy values, becomes a step function as shown in the
figure below
CASE 3: Probability of occupation at ordinary temperature:
At ordinary temperatures f(E) remains 1 for E << EF, and starts decreasing from 1 as ‘E’
becomes closer to EF as sown in fig.
At E = EF we have,
1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝑒 0 +1 = 1+1 = 2

∴The value of f(E) becomes ½ at E = EF

Thus, Fermi energy is the most probable energy or the average energy of the electrons which undergo
transitions across the Fermi level at temperature above zero degree absolute.

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Electron concentration:

Metals, such as copper and aluminium, are held together by bonds that are very different from those of
molecules. Rather than sharing and exchanging electrons, a metal is essentially held together by a system
of free electrons that wander throughout the solid. The simplest model of a metal is the free electron model.
This model views electrons as a gas. In a metal, due to the randomness in the direction of motion of the
conduction electrons, the probability of finding an electron moving in any given direction is equal to finding
some other electron moving in exactly the opposite direction in the absence of an electric field.

In the absence of external electric field, the motion of electrons in a metal will be random, because of this
there is no drift but when external electric field is applied the electrons slowly drift in a direction opposite
to the electric field.
𝑚𝜎
𝑛𝑒 = 𝑒 2 𝜏

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∶ ne is the electron concentration

e is the electron charge
𝜏 is the mean collision time
m is the mass of the electron
σ is the electric conductivity

Expression for electrical conductivity and resistivity based on quantum free electron
theory
The momentum of the free electrons in the metal is given by
ℎ 2𝜋
𝑝= ; but 𝑘=
𝜆 𝜆
ℎ𝑘
Hence, 𝑝 = 2𝜋
ℎ𝑘
𝑚𝑣 =
2𝜋

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ℎ𝑘
𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑚 ………………. (1)

In thermal equilibrium, the free electrons are moving in random fashion. The velocities of these free electrons
can be plotted in velocity space or k-space by assuming vF (Fermi velocity) as maximum velocity. The
resulting sphere having vF as the radius is known as Fermi sphere/ Fermi surface. Only those
electrons present near the Fermi surface can participate in electrical conduction. When no

electric is applied, centre of the sphere coincides with the origin of the k-space so that the net
momentum is zero.

When an electric filed is applied, the electrons are accelerated in the direction of the force.
The acceleration of the electrons is given by

Differentiating (1) w.r.t. ‘t’ we get,

𝑑𝑣 ℎ 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑣 ℎ 𝑑𝑘
𝑑𝑡
= 2𝜋𝑚 𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
… … … . . (2)

we know that Force applied on the electron in the applied field is

F= eE
ma = eE
𝑑𝑣
𝑚 = 𝑒𝐸
𝑑𝑡
Therefore,
ℎ 𝑑𝑘 2𝜋𝑒𝐸𝑑𝑡
= 𝑒𝐸 ⇒ 𝑑𝐾 = … … … … (3)
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡 ℎ
If the field is applied for time period ‘t’, then integrating the above equation from 0→t, and
applying the limits we get
2𝜋𝑒𝐸𝑡
𝑘(𝑡) − 𝑘(0) =
ℎ

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2𝜋𝑒𝐸𝑡
𝛥𝑘 = … … … … . . (4)
ℎ
Thus, if the field is applied at time t=0 to filled Fermi sphere centred at the origin of the k-space, then in
𝜆
characteristic time , 𝜏 = 𝜏𝐹 = 𝜐𝐹 , the sphere might have moved to a new centre at
𝐹

2𝜋𝑒𝐸 𝜆𝐹
𝛥𝑘 = … … … … . . (5)
ℎ 𝜐𝐹

The steady state current density is given by

𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒Δ𝑣
ℎΔ𝑘
Δ𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑚

𝑛𝑒ℎΔ𝑘
𝐽=[ ] … … … … … . . (6)
2𝜋𝑚∗
Here m* is the effective mass of the electrons. The electrical conductivity (σ) is related to current density
by
J = E ……………………(7)
From equation (6) and (7)
𝑛𝑒ℎΔ𝑘
𝜎= ………………………(8)
2𝜋𝑚∗ 𝐸
Substituting from equation (5) in equation (8) we get
𝑛𝑒ℎ 2𝜋𝑒𝐸 𝜆𝐹
𝜎= ( )
2𝜋𝑚∗ 𝐸 ℎ 𝑣𝐹
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆𝐹
𝜎= ∗( )
𝑚 𝑣𝐹
Where m* is the effective mass of electrons.
𝑚∗ 𝑣𝐹
Also, the expression for resistivity is given by 𝜌 = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆

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SEMICONDUCTORS

Conductivity of solids can be explained on the basis of band theory. The important energy
bands in solids are

1. Valence Band: The electron in the outer most orbit of an atom is known as valence electron.
The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band. The valence
band may be completely or partially filled.

2. Conduction Band: The range of energies possessed by conduction electrons is known as

conduction band. In some metals, the valence electron may be loosely packed and may get
detached to become free electron. These free electrons are responsible for conduction of current in
a conductor and are hence called conduction electrons.
Significance of Band Gap Eg
The band gap energy Eg is minimum amount of energy required for breaking a covalent bond
and to excite an electron from valence band to conduction band. The energy required to break
a covalent bond in Ge is 0.72eV and for Si it is 1.12eV at 300K.

Forbidden energy band/gap: The separation between bottom of conduction band and top of
valence band in the energy level diagram of solids is known as forbidden energy band. There are
no electrons in the forbidden energy gap.

Classification of semiconductors:
The materials having moderate electrical conductivity are called as
semiconductors. These materials have a completely filled VB and completely filled CB at
0K. Semiconductors are classified into two types on the basis of concentrations of electrons
and holes in the material.

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1. Intrinsic or pure semiconductor

2. Extrinsic or doped semiconductor

Fermi Level in semiconductors:

In semiconductors, at Temperature, T = OK the conduction band (CB) is completely empty and the valence
band (VB) is completely filled. But, at ordinary temperatures such as room temperatures, electrons get
excited from the top of the valence band to conduction band and occupy energy levels at the bottom of the
conduction band. As CB is a higher energy band, the electrons undergo de-excitation to VB. This process
of excitation and de-excitation continues and the electron involved becomes conduction electrons. This
means that the conduction electrons are distributed between the energy levels in the bottom of the CB and
top of the VB. The average energy of all such energy levels is called Fermi level of the semiconductor. In
the case of pure or intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level corresponds to level in the forbidden gap
exactly in between CB and VB. Fermi level also signifies the average energy of the conduction electrons.
3
4
*

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Expression for electrical conductivity of a semiconductor:

E
A
Consider a semiconductor of area cross section ‘A’. Let an electric field of ‘E’ is applied
to the conductor. Let𝑣𝑒 and 𝑣ℎ be the drift velocities of electrons and holes respectively due to applied
field E.
The current due to electron is
𝐼𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑒 → (1)
The current due to holes is
𝐼ℎ = 𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝐴𝑣ℎ → (2)

Here and 𝑛𝑒 &𝑛ℎ are the number of electrons and holes per unit volume.
The total current is given by
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑒 + 𝐼ℎ = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝐴𝑣ℎ
The total current is the sum of the current due electrons and holes. The total current density is given by
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝑣ℎ → (3)
By definition, mobility of charge carriers is the drift velocity per unit electric filed.
Therefore the drift velocity of electrons is
𝑣
𝑣𝑒 = 𝜇𝑒 𝐸 𝜇ℎ = 𝐸ℎ
and the drift velocity of holes is
𝑣ℎ = 𝜇ℎ 𝐸
where𝜇𝑒 &𝜇ℎ are the motilities of electrons and holes respectively.
Substituting for 𝑣𝑒 &𝑣ℎ in equation (3) we get
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝜇𝑒 𝐸 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝜇ℎ 𝐸 → (4)

We have Ohm’s law 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 → (5)

Where 𝜎 is conductivity, which is defined as the current density per unit applied electric field.

Comparing equation (4) and (5), we get

𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝜇ℎ → (6)

This equation gives total conductivity of a semiconductor.

For intrinsic semiconductors, 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖 ; 𝑛𝑖 is the intrinsic carrier concentration. Hence

𝜎𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ )

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Electron and hole concentration:

The number of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band of a semiconductor is known as electron
concentration. Similarly, the number of holes per unit volume in the valence band of a semiconductor
is known as hole concentration.

The electron concentration 𝑛𝑒 is given by

𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝒈
𝟒√𝟐 ∗ 𝟑⁄ ( )
𝒏𝒆 = 𝟑
(𝝅𝒎 𝒆 𝒌𝑻) 𝟐 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝒉
The hole concentration 𝑛ℎ is given by

𝟒√𝟐 𝟑⁄ −(𝑬𝑭 )
𝒏𝒉 = (𝝅𝒎∗𝒉 𝒌𝑻) 𝟐 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝒉𝟑

In the above equation, 𝐸𝐹 is the Fermi energy of the semiconductor, 𝐸𝑔 is the energy gap of the
semiconductor, 𝑚𝑒∗ and 𝑚ℎ∗ are the effective masses of electrons and holes, T is the absolute temperature.

Hall Effect

If a material carrying current is placed in a transverse magnetic field, an electric field is produced
in the material in a direction perpendicular to both the current and magnetic field. This phenomenon is
called Hall Effect. The electric field generated is called Hall field and corresponding voltage is Hall
voltage.

Expression for Hall coefficient :

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Consider a rectangle slab of a semiconductor material in which a current ‘I’ is flowing in positive
x-direction. Let the semiconductor material be of n type, which means that the charge carriers are
electrons.

Let a magnetic field, B is applied along Z-direction as shown in the figure.

Under the influence of a magnetic field, the electrons experience the Lorentz-force, FL given by
𝐹𝐿 = −𝐵𝑒𝑣 → (1); -ve is due to electron charge
Where ‘e ‘is the magnitude of charge on the electron and ‘v’ is drift velocity of the electrons.
Applying the Flemings left -hand rule, the force FL is acting on the electron along the negative y-
direction. The electrons are therefore deflected downwards resulting in decrease and increase in
electron density at the upper and lower surfaces respectively. Hence a potential difference VH called
Hall voltage appears between the upper and lower surface of the semiconductor material. This voltage
establishes an electric field EH, called Hall field across the conductor in the negative y- direction.

The field EH, exerts an upward force FH on the electrons given by,
𝐹𝐻 = −𝑒𝐸𝐻 → (2)
Now as the deflection of electrons continues in the downward direction due to Lorentz force
FL, the Hall field increases. As a result, the force FH which acts on the electron in upward direction
also increases till it becomes equal to FL. Thus, at equilibrium,
𝐹𝐿 = 𝐹𝐻
i.e.−𝐵𝑒𝑣 = −𝑒𝐸𝐻 since 𝐹𝐋 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵
⇒ 𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵𝑣 → (3)
Using the relation, 𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣,
The current through the semiconductor 𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣
𝐼
𝑣 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒
Substituting for v, in equation (3) we get
𝐼
𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵 𝑤𝑑𝑛𝑒 ------ (4) since A = wd
𝐵𝐼𝑑 𝐵𝐼
The Hall voltage, 𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 𝑑 = 𝑤𝑑𝑛𝑒 = 𝑤𝑛𝑒 -------- (5)

where n is charge carrier concentration.

𝐵𝐼
𝑉𝐻 =
𝜌𝑐ℎ 𝑤
Where 𝛒𝐜𝐡 = 𝐧𝐞, is the charge density which is a constant for a given material.

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𝑅𝐻 𝐵𝐼
Hence 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑤
1 1
where RH is a constant called Hall coefficient, 𝑅𝐻 = 𝜌 = 𝑛𝑒
𝑐ℎ

Thus by measuring VH, I & w and by knowing B, the charge density ρch can be determined using
which Hall coefficient can be evaluated.

Importance of Hall Effect:

The importance of Hall Effect in the field of semiconductor is that it helps to determine

1) The type of semiconductor.

2) The sign of majority charge carriers.
3) The majority charge carrier concentration.
4) The mobility of majority charge carriers.
5) The mean drift velocity of majority charge carriers.

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Dielectric Properties
Dielectrics
A dielectric is an electrically non-conducing material which provides electrical insulation
between two media (conductors) which are at different potentials, and also serves as an electrical charge
storage aid under certain circumstances.
E.g.: glass, porcelain, wood, rubber or waxed paper.

Electric dipole:
Electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges, +q and −q separated by a very small distance
Examples of electric dipole: - Dipoles are common in nature. Molecules like 𝐻2 𝑂, HCl, C𝐻3 COOH are
electric dipoles and have permanent dipole moments.
Dipole moment:
A dipole moment is the product of the magnitude of the charge and the distance between the centres
of the positive and negative charges in a system. It is denoted by
µ = 𝑞𝑟

Units: C-m or Debye,

Polar and non-polar dielectric materials

Polar dielectric non-polar dielectric
In polar material, the effective centers of the In non-polar materials, the effective center of
negative and positive charges in the molecules the negative charge distribution coincides with
do not coincide with each other even in the the effective center of the positive charges
absence of any external field
Eg : 𝐻2 𝑂, HCl, CO Eg : 𝑂2, 𝐻2 , 𝑁2

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Polarization in dielectrics
The Process of formation of dipoles or alignment of already existing dipoles on the application of an
electric field on the dielectric material is called polarization.

(i) Polarization in the case of non-polar dielectric:

Consider a rectangular slab of a non-polar dielectric material. Let the slab be placed between two
electrodes A & B, between which a uniform electric field E is set up.
Under the influence of the electric field, the positive and negative charges of the various molecules
in it experience pulling forces in opposite directions. As a result, the effective centers of positive and
negative charges get separated till the restoring forces balance the forces due to the applied field. Due to
the separation between the two charge centers, each molecule develops a dipole moment in the direction
of the electric field. Such dipoles are produced throughout the solid.

Now, inside the body of the dielectric slab, though the polarization charges appear in every molecule,
opposite charges in the neighboring molecules neutralize each other. This kind of cancellation takes place
throughout the body of the material since there are equal amount of negative and positive charges.
However, the charges which are at the end surfaces of the slab do not find the opposite kind of charges
for cancellation as is evident from the figure. Thus the effect of the applied field is to cause the appearance
of net opposing charges at the end faces of the slab.
(ii) Case of polar dielectric:
In the case of a polar dielectric material, there are permanent dipoles oriented randomly. Under
the influence of the applied electric field, the molecular dipoles experience a torque which tends to align
their dipole moments along the direction of the field. This tendency is opposed by the thermal agitation
inside the material. Between these two opposing events, some alignment is achieved under sufficiently

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strong fields. Once the alignment is established, the surface charges appear at the ends of the slab in a
way similar to the case of non-polar dielectric materials.
Types of polarization processes
There are three different mechanisms through which electrical polarization can occur in dielectric
materials when they are subjected to an external electric field. Accordingly there are three main types of
polarizations.
They are,
1) Electronic polarization,
2) Ionic polarization
3) Orientational polarization
1. Electronic polarization:
The electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of the positive and negative charges in a dielectric
material owing to the application of an external electric field. The separation created between the charges
leads to development of a dipole moment. This process occurs throughout the material. Thus the material
as a whole will be polarized.

The electronic polarizability, αe for a rare gas atom is given by,

𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 −1)
𝛼𝑒 = ; where N is the number of atoms/unit volume.
𝑁

2. Ionic Polarization:
Ionic polarization occurs only in those dielectric materials which possess ionic bonds such as in NaCl.
When ionic solids are subjected to an external electric field, the adjacent ions of opposite sign undergo
displacement. The displacement causes an increase or decrease in the distance of separation between the
atoms depending upon the location of the ion pair in the lattice.

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This results in a net dipole moment due to the shifting of electron clouds relative to the nuclei.
3. Orientational Polarization:
Orientational polarization occurs in those dielectric materials which possess molecules with
permanent dipole moment (i.e., in polar dielectrics). The orientation of these molecules will be random
normally due to thermal agitation. Because of randomness in orientation, the material has net zero dipole
moment. But under the influence of an applied electric field, each of the dipoles undergo rotation so as to
reorient along the direction of the field because of which, the overall cancellation of dipole moments due
to randomness does not hold good any more (Fig. 7). Thus the material itself develops electrical
polarization.

The orientational polarization is strongly temperature dependent and decreases with increase of
temperature.
Internal field:
What is internal field? Write an expression for the internal field in case of solid and liquid dielectrics?
"The internal field, or the local field, is the electric field that acts at the site of any given atom of a solid
or a liquid dielectric subjected to an external electric field. It is defined as “the resultant of the applied
field and the field due to all the surrounding dipoles".
Consider a dielectric material either solid or liquid kept in an external uniform electric field of
strength E. In the material let us consider an array of equidistant atomic dipoles arranged parallel to the
direction of the field as shown in fig.

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Let the interatomic distance be ‘d’ and dipole moment of each of atomic dipole be μ. Then the internal
field at the site of an atom is given by
1.2𝜇
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 +
𝜋𝜀0 𝑑3

If αe is the electronic polarizability of the atoms, we can write,

𝜇 = 𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖
1.2𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖
Hence, 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + 𝜋𝜀0 𝑑3

Or
𝐸
𝐸𝑖 =
1.2𝛼𝑒
1−
𝜋𝜀0 𝑑 3

In 3-dimensional cases, the general equation for internal field is expressed as,
𝛾𝑃
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 +
𝜀0
where, P is the dipole moment/unit volume for the material, and γ is the proportionality constant
called internal field constant.
In the 3-dimensional case, if it is cubic lattice, then it can be shown that γ = 1/3 in which event, the
internal field is named Lorentz field given by,

𝑃
𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 = 𝐸 +
3𝜀0
Above equation is known as Lorentz relation.

Clausius – Mossotti relation

Consider an elemental solid dielectric material of dielectric constant 𝜀𝑟
If N is the number of atoms/unit volume of the material, μ is the atomic dipole moment, then we
have,
Dipole moment/unit volume = 𝑁𝜇 ---------------------- (1)

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Here the field experienced by the atoms is the internal field Ei. Hence, if αe is the electronic
polarizability of the atoms, we can write the equation for μ as,
𝜇 = 𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖 ---- (2)
Therefore, dipole moment/unit volume =𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖 --------------------------- (3)
But dipole moment/ unit volume is Polarization P
Therefore 𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸𝑖 -------------------- (4)
𝑃
Or 𝐸𝑖 = 𝑁𝛼 -------------------- (5)
𝑒

But 𝑃 = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1)𝐸

𝑃
Or 𝐸= ---------------- (6)
𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 −1)

For 3-D lattice, internal field is given by

𝛾𝑃
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 +
𝜀0
Substituting for Ei and E from Eqs(5) and (6) we have
𝑃 𝑃 𝛾𝑃
=𝜀 (𝜀
+ ------------- (7)
𝑁𝛼𝑒 0 𝑟 −1) 𝜀0

Considering the internal field in the material to be Lorentz field, we have γ= 1/3
1 1 1
= +
𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1) 3𝜀0
1 3+(𝜀𝑟 −1)
=
𝑁𝛼𝑒 3𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 −1)
3𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 +2
=
𝑁𝛼0 𝜀𝑟 −1

By rearranging we have,
𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜀 −1
= 𝜀𝑟 +2
3𝜀0 𝑟

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Numericals:
1. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level 0.04 eV above the Fermi level at
400 K in a material.
Solution:
Given, T = 400K,
To find f(E) = ?
Above the Fermi Level, 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 = 0.04𝑒𝑉
We have
1
f (E) = E −E F

e kT + 1
1
𝑓(𝐸) = 0.04×1.6×10−19
1 + 𝑒 1.38×10−23 ×400

=𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟖

2. Calculate the Fermi velocity and mean free path for conduction electrons in Al, given that its Fermi
energy is 11.63 eV and relaxation time for free electrons is 7.3 × 10−15 𝑠.
Solution:
Given: 𝐸𝐹 = 11.63 𝑒𝑉, 𝜏 = 7.3 × 10−15 𝑠
To find; 𝑣𝐹 =? 𝜆𝐹 =?
𝑚𝑣𝐹2
We have 𝐸𝐹 = 2
2𝐸𝐹
𝑣𝐹 = √ 𝑚

2 × 11.63 × 1.6 × 10−19

𝑣𝐹 = √
9.1 × 10−31
=𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎/𝒔

3. Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a state with energy 0.5 eV above Fermi
energy is occupied.
Solution:
1
Given: f(E) = 1% = 100
Above the Fermi Level, 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 = 0.5 𝑒𝑉
To find, T =?
We have
1
f (E) = E − EF

e kT
+1
1 1
= 0.5×1.6×10−19
100
1 + 𝑒 1.38×10−23 ×𝑇
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟏 𝑲

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4. The intrinsic carrier density is 1.5 × 1016 m–3. If the mobility of electron and hole are 0.13 and 0.05
m2 V–1 s–1, calculate the conductivity.

5. The Intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in Ge is 2.37 × 1019 m3 if the electron and hole
mobilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m2 V–1 s–1 respectively, calculate the resistivity.

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[Link] Hall coefficient of certain silicon specimen was found to be –7.35 × 10–5 m3 C–1 from 100 to 400
K. Determine the nature of the semiconductor. If the conductivity was found to be 200Ω –1 m–1. Calculate
the density and mobility of the charge carrier.

7. An N-type semiconductor has hall coefficient = 4.16 × 10–4 m3 C–1. The conductivity is 108 –1 m–1.
Calculate its charge carrier density ‘ne’and electron mobility at room temperature.

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8. A semiconducting crystal with 12 mm long, 5 mm wide and 1 mm thick has a magnetic density of 0.5
Wbm–2 applied from front to back perpendicular to largest faces. When a current of 20 mA flows length
wise through the specimen, the voltage measured across its width is found to be 37μV . What is the Hall
coefficient of this semiconductor?

9. The Electronic polarizability of Krypton gas is 3.54 × 10−40 𝐹𝑚2 . If the gas contains
1025 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
2.7 × at NTP calculate the dielectric constant of Krypton.
𝑚3
Solution:
Given:
Electronic polarizability 𝛼𝑒 = 3.54 × 10−40 𝐹𝑚2
Number of atoms per unit volume, 𝑁 = 2.7 × 1025 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚3
Dielectric constant, 𝜀𝑟 = 𝐾=?
We have
 ( − 1)
e = 0 r
N
Substituting the given values,
8.854×10−12 (𝜀𝑟 −1)
3.54 × 10−40 = 2.7×1025
Simplifying, we get
𝛆𝐫 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟖

10. An elemental solid dielectric material has polarizability 7 × 10−40 𝐹𝑚2. Assuming the internal field to
be Lorentz field, calculate the dielectric constant for the material if the material has 3 × 1028 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚3.
Solution:
Electronic polarizability 𝛼𝑒 = 7 × 10−40 𝐹𝑚2
Number of atoms per unit volume, 𝑁 = 3 × 1028 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚3
Dielectric constant, 𝜀𝑟 =?

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Since, the internal field is Lorentz field we can apply Clausius - Mossotti equation given by
N e  r − 1
=
3 0 r + 2
3×1028 ×7×10−40 𝜀 −1
= 𝜀𝑟 +2
3×8.854×10−12 𝑟
𝜺𝒓 =12.33

11. Find the polarization produced in a dielectric medium of relative permittivity 15 in the presence of an
electric field of 500 V/m.
Solution:
Given:
Relative permittivity = Dielectric constant, 𝜀𝑟 =15
Electric field, E = 500 V/m
Polarization, P = ?
We have,
P =  0 ( r − 1)E
Substituting we get,
𝑃 = 8.854 × 10−12 × (15 − 1)500

P= 𝟔. 𝟏𝟗𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑪/𝒎−𝟐

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