ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

 The endocrine system is a hormonal or messenger system that works alongside the
nervous system to regulate body functions. It works through chemical messengers
called hormones, which act on specific receptors— like a lock and key.
 The main endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid,
parathyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal glands, ovaries in females, and testes in
males.

FUNCTIONS

 Produces hormones that act as chemical messengers.

STUDY AND SPECIALISTS

 Endocrinology (Medical study of the structure and workings of the endocrine system,
the associated diseases and conditions, and their treatment).
 Endocrinologist (Physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of
endocrine disorders).

CLASSIFICATION

 Cranial gland (Hypothalamus, Pituitary, Pineal).

ANATOMY
 HYPOTHALAMUS:
  Neural centre of the endocrine system.
 Regulated by feedback mechanisms, mainly negative feedback.
 Regulates the pituitary gland.
 Produces 9 neurohormones – TRH, PRH, Dopamine, GHRH, Somatostatin,
GnRH, CRH, Oxytocin, ADH.

 PITUITARY GLAND:
 Master gland controlled by Hypothalamus.
 The pituitary gland sits in the sella turcica, a bony cavity at the base of the
brain.
 Anterior lobe (Adenohypophysis) – Secretes hormones TSH, FSH, LH, GH, ACTH,
Prolactin and Posterior lobe (Neurohypophysis) – Stores and releases hormones
Oxytocin and ADH.

 PINEAL GLAND:
 Secretes Melatonin – controls sleep-wake cycles (biological clock).

 THYROID GLAND:
 The thyroid gland has right and left lobes connected by an isthmus in front of
the trachea, just below the Adams apple.
 Berrys ligament anchors it and moves with swallowing.
 Produces T3, T4 and Calcitonin.

 PARATHYROID GLAND:
 Four small oval shaped bodies behind the thyroid.
 Secretes Parathyroid hormone (PTH) – increases blood calcium.

 THYMUS:
 Secretes Thymosin – involved in T lymphocyte maturation.
 Shrinks and is replaced by fat in adults.

 ADRENAL GLAND:
 Located on top of kidneys; Right is pyramidal, Left is semilunar.
 Adrenal Cortex (Endocrine):
 Zona Glomerulosa – Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone).
  Zona Fasciculata – Glucocorticoids (Cortisol).
 Zona Reticularis – Sex hormones (Androgen and Oestrogen).
 Adrenal Medulla (Neuroendocrine): Secretes Epinephrine and Norepinephrine –
fight or flight/stress management.

 PANCREAS:
 It is divided into Head, Neck, Body & Tail.
 Heterocrine Gland: Has both endocrine and exocrine parts.
 Exocrine part (produces enzymes that help digest food) - Glands and ducts.
 Endocrine part (produces hormone that regulate blood sugar) - Islets of
Langerhans.
 Beta Cells (Insulin - lowers blood sugar).
 Alpha Cells (Glucagon - raises blood sugar).
 Delta cells (Somatostatin - Stop both).
 F Cells (Pancreatic polypeptide - Supporting cells).

 OVARIES:
 Secrete Oestrogen (female characteristics, ovum production).
 Secrete Progesterone (maintains pregnancy).

 TESTES:
 Secrete Testosterone (male characteristics, sperm production).

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

 What is the endocrine system? A system of glands that release hormones into
the bloodstream.
 What are hormones? Chemical messengers that control body functions.
 What are endocrine glands? Glands that secrete hormones directly into the
blood.
 How do hormones reach target organs? Through the bloodstream.
 Why is the endocrine system important? It regulates growth, metabolism,
reproduction, and mood.
 How is it different from the nervous system? Endocrine is slower but has long-
lasting effects; nervous is fast and short-acting.
 Name three major endocrine glands. Pituitary, thyroid, and pancreas.
 What is a target cell? A cell that responds to a specific hormone.
 What happens if hormones are imbalanced? It can lead to diseases like
diabetes or hypothyroidism.
 Are hormones always active? No, they are released as needed.
 What is a feedback mechanism? A system that regulates hormone levels.
 What is negative feedback? It reduces hormone production when enough is
present.
 What is positive feedback? It increases hormone production temporarily (e.g.,
oxytocin during childbirth).
 Which system works closely with the endocrine system? The nervous system.
 What is endocrinology? The study of the endocrine system and its diseases.
 Where is the pituitary gland located? Below the brain, in the sella turcica.
 Why is it called the master gland? It controls many other endocrine glands.
 Name the two parts of the pituitary. Anterior and posterior lobes.
 What does GH (Growth Hormone) do? Promotes growth of bones and tissues.
 What is the function of TSH? Stimulates the thyroid to release hormones.
 What does ACTH do? Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol.
 What are FSH and LH? Gonadotropins that control reproduction.
 What is prolactin? A hormone that stimulates milk production.
 What does ADH (vasopressin) do? Helps kidneys reabsorb water.
 What is oxytocin? Causes uterine contraction and milk ejection.
 What happens if GH is too much in childhood?\ Gigantism.
 What happens if GH is too little in childhood? Dwarfism.
 Too much GH in adults leads to? Acromegaly.
 What is pituitary dwarfism? Short stature due to lack of GH.
 What is panhypopituitarism? Deficiency of all pituitary hormones.
 Where is the thyroid gland located? In the neck, below the Adam’s apple.
 What hormones does it produce? T3 (triiodothyronine), T4 (thyroxine), and
calcitonin.
 Main function of T3 and T4? Control metabolism.
 What does calcitonin do? Lowers blood calcium.
 What is hypothyroidism? Low thyroid hormone levels.
 Symptoms of hypothyroidism? Fatigue, weight gain, slow heartbeat.
 What is hyperthyroidism? Overproduction of thyroid hormones.
 Symptoms of hyperthyroidism? Weight loss, fast heartbeat, anxiety.
 What is Graves disease? An autoimmune cause of hyperthyroidism.
 What is goiter? Enlargement of the thyroid gland.
 What is myxedema? Severe hypothyroidism in adults.
 What is cretinism? Congenital hypothyroidism in children.
 What triggers TSH release? The hypothalamus via TRH.
 What is thyrotoxicosis? Excess thyroid hormones in blood.
 How is thyroid hormone level tested? Using a blood test for T3, T4, and TSH.
 Where are the parathyroid glands located? Behind the thyroid gland.
 What hormone do they secrete? Parathyroid hormone (PTH).
 Function of PTH? Raises blood calcium levels.
 What is hyperparathyroidism? Too much PTH causing high calcium.
 What is hypoparathyroidism? Too little PTH causing low calcium and muscle
spasms.
 Where are the adrenal glands? On top of the kidneys.
 What are the two parts? Cortex and medulla.
 Hormones from adrenal cortex? Cortisol, aldosterone, and sex hormones.
 Function of cortisol? Manages stress and increases blood sugar.
 Function of aldosterone? Controls salt and water balance.
 Function of adrenal sex hormones? Maintain secondary sex characteristics.
 Hormones from adrenal medulla? Epinephrine and norepinephrine.
 Function of epinephrine? Increases heart rate, prepares for fight or flight.
 What is Cushing syndrome? Too much cortisol.
 What is Addison’s disease? Too little adrenal hormones.
 What is pheochromocytoma? Tumor of adrenal medulla causing high BP.
 Symptoms of Cushing's syndrome? Moon face, weight gain, high blood sugar.
 Symptoms of Addison’s disease? Weakness, weight loss, low BP.
 What causes adrenal virilism? Excess androgen production.
 What is Conn’s syndrome? Excess aldosterone production.
 Is the pancreas an endocrine gland? Yes, it has endocrine and exocrine parts.
 Endocrine part of pancreas? Islets of Langerhans.
 What does insulin do? Lowers blood sugar.
 What does glucagon do? Raises blood sugar.
 What is diabetes mellitus? A disorder of high blood sugar due to lack of insulin or
insulin resistance.
 What is type 1 diabetes? Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing cells.
 What is type 2 diabetes? Insulin resistance, usually in adults.
 What is hyperinsulinism? Too much insulin causing low blood sugar.
 What is hypoglycemia? Low blood sugar.
 What is diabetic ketoacidosis? A serious condition due to uncontrolled diabetes.
 What are the female endocrine glands? Ovaries.
 What hormones do ovaries produce? Estrogen and progesterone.
 Function of estrogen? Female traits and menstrual cycle.
 Function of progesterone? Prepares uterus for pregnancy.
 What are male endocrine glands? Testes.
 What hormone do testes produce? Testosterone.
 Function of testosterone? Male traits and sperm production.
 What controls gonads? FSH and LH from the pituitary.
 What happens in menopause? Decrease in estrogen and progesterone.
 What is andropause? Age-related drop in testosterone in males.
 What is the role of the hypothalamus? It controls the pituitary gland.
 What is melatonin? Hormone from pineal gland that regulates sleep.
 What is the thymus gland? Gland for immune cell (T-cell) development in
children.
 What hormone does the thymus produce? Thymosin.
 What is hormone replacement therapy (HRT)? Giving hormones when the body
doesn’t make enough.
 What is an endocrine disorder? Any disease affecting hormone production.
 How are hormone levels tested? Through blood and urine tests.
 Can stress affect hormones? Yes, it increases cortisol.
 What is endocrine cancer? Cancer in any hormone-producing gland.
 What is endocrinologist? A doctor who treats hormone-related problems.
 What is a gland? An organ that secretes substances.
 How are endocrine diseases treated? Hormone therapy, surgery, or
medications.
 What is SIADH? Too much ADH, leading to water retention.
 What is diabetes insipidus? ADH deficiency causing excessive urination.
 Why are hormones important? They regulate vital body functions and maintain
balance.