Curriculum

LAST UPDATED: 08.12.15

The term curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a
specific course or program. In dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the courses offered by
a school, but it is rarely used in such a general sense in schools. Depending on how broadly
educators define or employ the term, curriculum typically refers to the knowledge and skills
students are expected to learn, which includes the learning standards or learning objectives they
are expected to meet; the units and lessons that teachers teach; the assignments and projects
given to students; the books, materials, videos, presentations, and readings used in a course; and
the tests, assessments, and other methods used to evaluate student learning. An individual
teacher’s curriculum, for example, would be the specific learning standards, lessons,
assignments, and materials used to organize and teach a particular course.

When the terms curriculum or curricula are used in educational contexts without qualification,
specific examples, or additional explanation, it may be difficult to determine precisely what the
terms are referring to—mainly because they could be applied to either all or only some of the
component parts of a school’s academic program or courses.

In many cases, teachers develop their own curricula, often refining and improving them over
years, although it is also common for teachers to adapt lessons and syllabi created by other
teachers, use curriculum templates and guides to structure their lessons and courses, or purchase
prepackaged curricula from individuals and companies. In some cases, schools purchase
comprehensive, multigrade curriculum packages—often in a particular subject area, such as
mathematics—that teachers are required to use or follow. Curriculum may also encompass a
school’s academic requirements for graduation, such as the courses students have to take and
pass, the number of credits students must complete, and other requirements, such as completing a
capstone project or a certain number of community-service hours. Generally speaking,
curriculum takes many different forms in schools—too many to comprehensively catalog here.

It is important to note that while curriculum encompasses a wide variety of potential educational
and instructional practices, educators often have a very precise, technical meaning in mind when
they use the term. Most teachers spend a lot of time thinking about, studying, discussing, and
analyzing curriculum, and many educators have acquired a specialist’s expertise in curriculum
development—i.e., they know how to structure, organize, and deliver lessons in ways that
facilitate or accelerate student learning. To noneducators, some curriculum materials may seem
simple or straightforward (such as a list of required reading, for example), but they may reflect a
deep and sophisticated understanding of an academic discipline and of the most effective
strategies for learning acquisition and classroom management.

For a related discussion, see hidden curriculum.

Reform
Since curriculum is one of the foundational elements of effective schooling and teaching, it is
often the object of reforms, most of which are broadly intended to either mandate or encourage
greater curricular standardization and consistency across states, schools, grade levels, subject
areas, and courses. The following are a few representative examples of the ways in which
curriculum is targeted for improvement or used to leverage school improvement and increase
teacher effectiveness:

 Standards requirements: When new learning standards are adopted at the state, district,
or school levels, teachers typically modify what they teach and bring their curriculum
into “alignment” with the learning expectations outlined in the new standards. While the
technical alignment of curriculum with standards does not necessarily mean that teachers
are teaching in accordance with the standards—or, more to the point, that students are
actually achieving those learning expectations—learning standards remain a mechanism
by which policy makers and school leaders attempt to improve curriculum and teaching
quality. The Common Core State Standards Initiative, for example, is a national effort to
influence curriculum design and teaching quality in schools through the adoption of new
learning standards by states.
 Assessment requirements: Another reform strategy that indirectly influences curriculum
is assessment, since the methods used to measure student learning compel teachers to
teach the content and skills that will eventually be evaluated. The most commonly
discussed examples are standardized testing and high-stakes testing, which can give rise
to a phenomenon informally called “teaching to the test.” Because federal and state
policies require students to take standardized tests at certain grade levels, and because
regulatory penalties or negative publicity may result from poor student performance (in
the case of high-stakes tests), teachers are consequently under pressure to teach in ways
that are likely to improve student performance on standardized tests—e.g., by teaching
the content likely to be tested or by coaching students on specific test-taking techniques.
While standardized tests are one way in which assessment is used to leverage curriculum
reform, schools may also use rubrics and many other strategies to improve teaching
quality through the modification of assessment strategies, requirements, and expectations.
 Curriculum alignment: Schools may try to improve curriculum quality by bringing
teaching activities and course expectations into “alignment” with learning standards and
other school courses—a practice sometimes called “curriculum mapping.” The basic idea
is to create a more consistent and coherent academic program by making sure that
teachers teach the most important content and eliminate learning gaps that may exist
between sequential courses and grade levels. For example, teachers may review their
mathematics program to ensure that what students are actually being taught in every
Algebra I course offered in the school not only reflects expected learning standards for
that subject area and grade level, but that it also prepares students for Algebra II and
geometry. When the curriculum is not aligned, students might be taught significantly
different content in each Algebra I course, for example, and students taking different
Algebra I courses may complete the courses unevenly prepared for Algebra II. For a
more detailed discussion, see coherent curriculum.
 Curriculum philosophy: The design and goals of any curriculum reflect the educational
philosophy—whether intentionally or unintentionally—of the educators who developed
it. Consequently, curriculum reform may occur through the adoption of a different
 philosophy or model of teaching by a school or educator. Schools that follow the
Expeditionary Learning model, for example, embrace a variety of approaches to teaching
generally known as project-based learning, which encompasses related strategies such
as community-based learning and authentic learning. In Expeditionary Learning schools,
students complete multifaceted projects called “expeditions” that require teachers to
develop and structure curriculum in ways that are quite different from the more
traditional approaches commonly used in schools.
 Curriculum packages: In some cases, schools decide to purchase or adopt a curriculum
package that has been developed by an outside organization. One well-known and
commonly used option for American public schools is International Baccalaureate, which
offers curriculum programs for elementary schools, middle schools, and high schools.
Districts may purchase all three programs or an individual school may purchase only one,
and the programs may be offered to all or only some of the students in a school. When
schools adopt a curriculum package, teachers often receive specialized training to ensure
that the curriculum is effectively implemented and taught. In many cases, curriculum
packages are purchased or adopted because they are perceived to be of a higher quality or
more prestigious than the existing curriculum options offered by a school or
independently developed by teachers.
 Curriculum resources: The resources that schools provide to teachers can also have a
significant affect on curriculum. For example, if a district or school purchases a certain
set of textbooks and requires teachers to use them, those textbooks will inevitably
influence what gets taught and how teachers teach. Technology purchases are another
example of resources that have the potential to influence curriculum. If all students are
given laptops and all classrooms are outfitted with interactive whiteboards, for example,
teachers can make significant changes in what they teach and how they teach to take
advantage of these new technologies (for a more detailed discussion of this example, see
one-to-one). In most cases, however, new curriculum resources require schools to invest
in professional development that helps teachers use the new resources effectively, given
that simply providing new resources without investing in teacher education and training
may fail to bring about desired improvements. In addition, the type of professional
development provided to teachers can also have a major influence on curriculum
development and design.
 Curriculum standardization: States, districts, and schools may also try to improve
teaching quality and effectiveness by requiring, or simply encouraging, teachers to use
either a standardized curriculum or common processes for developing curriculum. While
the strategies used to promote more standardized curricula can vary widely from state to
state or school to school, the general goal is to increase teaching quality through greater
curricular consistency. School performance will likely improve, the reasoning goes, if
teaching methods and learning expectations are based on sound principles and
consistently applied throughout a state, district, or school. Curriculum standards may also
be created or proposed by influential educational organizations—such as the National
Science Teachers Association or the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, for
example—with the purpose of guiding learning expectations and teaching within
particular academic disciplines.
 Curriculum scripting: Often called “scripted curriculum,” the scripting of curriculum is
the most prescriptive form of standardized, prepackaged curriculum, since it typically
 requires teachers to not only follow a particular sequence of preprepared lessons, but to
actually read aloud from a teaching script in class. While the professional autonomy and
creativity of individual teachers may be significantly limited when such a curriculum
system is used, the general rationale is that teaching quality can be assured or improved,
or at least maintained, across a school or educational system if teachers follow a precise
instructional script. While not every teacher will be a naturally excellent teacher, the
reasoning goes, all teachers can at least be given a high-quality curriculum script to
follow. Scripted curricula tend to be most common in districts and schools that face
significant challenges attracting and retaining experienced or qualified teachers, such as
larger urban schools in high-poverty communities.

Definitions and interpretations

This section is too long. Consider splitting it into new pages, adding subheadings, or
condensing it. (July 2016)

There is no generally agreed upon definition of curriculum.[13] Some influential definitions

combine various elements to describe curriculum as follows:

 Kerr defines curriculum as, "All the learning which is planned and guided by the school,
whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside of school." [5]
 Braslavsky states that curriculum is an agreement among communities, educational
professionals, and the State on what learners should take on during specific periods of
their lives. Furthermore, the curriculum defines "why, what, when, where, how, and with
whom to learn." [7]
 Outlines the skills, performances, attitudes, and values pupils are expected to learn from
schooling. It includes statements of desired pupil outcomes, descriptions of materials, and
the planned sequence that will be used to help pupils attain the outcomes.
 The total learning experience provided by a school. It includes the content of courses (the
syllabus), the methods employed (strategies), and other aspects, like norms and values,
which relate to the way the school is organized.
 The aggregate of courses of study given in a learning environment. The courses are
arranged in a sequence to make learning a subject easier. In schools, a curriculum spans
several grades.
 Curriculum can refer to the entire program provided by a classroom, school, district,
state, or country. A classroom is assigned sections of the curriculum as defined by the
school.
 Through the readings of Smith,[14] Dewey,[15] and Kelly,[16] four curriculums could be
defined as:
 Explicit curriculum: subjects that will be taught, the identified "mission" of the school,
and the knowledge and skills that the school expects successful students to acquire.
 Implicit curriculum: lessons that arise from the culture of the school and the behaviors,
attitudes, and expectations that characterize that culture, the unintended curriculum.
 Hidden curriculum: things which students learn, ‘because of the way in which the work
of the school is planned and organized but which are not in themselves overtly included
in the planning or even in the consciousness of those responsible for the school
 arrangements (Kelly, 2009). The term itself is attributed to Philip W. Jackson and is not
always meant to be a negative. Hidden curriculum, if its potential is realized, could
benefit students and learners in all educational systems. Also, it does not just include the
physical environment of the school, but the relationships formed or not formed between
students and other students or even students and teachers (Jackson, 1986[17]).
 Excluded curriculum: topics or perspectives that are specifically excluded from the
curriculum.
 Extracurricular: May include school-sponsored programs, which are intended to
supplement the academic aspect of the school experience, or community-based programs
and activities. Examples of school-sponsored extracurricular programs include sports,
academic clubs, and performing arts. Community-based programs and activities may take
place at a school (after hours) but are not linked directly to the school. Community-based
programs frequently expand on the curriculum that was introduced in the classroom. For
instance, students may be introduced to environmental conservation in the classroom.
This knowledge is further developed through a community-based program. Participants
then act on what they know with a conservation project. Community-based
extracurricular activities may include “environmental clubs, 4-H, boy/girl scouts, and
religious groups” (Hancock, Dyk, & Jones, 2012).[18]

Curriculum can be ordered into a procedure:[14]

Step 1: Diagnosis of needs.

Step 2: Formulation of objectives.
Step 3: Selection of content.
Step 4: Organization of content.
Step 5: Selection of learning experiences.
Step 6: Organization of learning experiences.
Step 7: Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and means of doing it.

Under some definitions, curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus
which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular
grade or standard. The word Syllabus originates from Greek. The Greek meaning of the word
basically means a "concise statement or table of the heads of a discourse, the contents of a
treatise, the subjects of series of lectures.[5]

'Curriculum' has numerous definitions, which can be slightly confusing. In its broadest sense a
curriculum may refer to all courses offered at a school, explicit. The intended curriculum, which
the students learn through the culture of the school, implicit. The curriculum that is specifically
excluded, like racism. Plus, the extra curricular activities like sports, and clubs. This is
particularly true of schools at the university level, where the diversity of a curriculum might be
an attractive point to a potential student.

A curriculum may also refer to a defined and prescribed course of studies, which students must
fulfill in order to pass a certain level of education. For example, an elementary school might
discuss how its curriculum, or its entire sum of lessons and teachings, is designed to improve
national testing scores or help students learn the basics. An individual teacher might also refer to
his or her curriculum, meaning all the subjects that will be taught during a school year.

On the other hand, a high school might refer to a curriculum as the courses required in order to
receive one’s diploma. They might also refer to curriculum in exactly the same way as the
elementary school, and use curriculum to mean both individual courses needed to pass, and the
overall offering of courses, which help prepare a student for life after high school.

Curriculum can be envisaged from different perspectives. What societies envisage as important
teaching and learning constitutes the "intended" curriculum.[16] Since it is usually presented in
official documents, it may be also called the "written" and/or "official" curriculum. [16] However,
at classroom level this intended curriculum may be altered through a range of complex classroom
interactions, and what is actually delivered can be considered the "implemented" curriculum. [16]
What learners really learn (i.e. what can be assessed and can be demonstrated as learning
outcomes/learner competencies) constitutes the "achieved" or "learned" curriculum. [16] In
addition, curriculum theory points to a "hidden" curriculum (i.e. the unintended development of
personal values and beliefs of learners, teachers and communities; unexpected impact of a
curriculum; unforeseen aspects of a learning process).[16] Those who develop the intended
curriculum should have all these different dimensions of the curriculum in view.[16] While the
"written" curriculum does not exhaust the meaning of curriculum, it is important because it
represents the vision of the society.[16] The "written" curriculum is usually expressed in
comprehensive and user-friendly documents, such as curriculum frameworks; subject
curricula/syllabuses, and in relevant and helpful learning materials, such as textbooks; teacher
guides; assessment guides.[16]

In some cases, people see the curriculum entirely in terms of the subjects that are taught, and as
set out within the set of textbooks, and forget the wider goals of competencies and personal
development.[15] This is why a curriculum framework is important. It sets the subjects within this
wider context, and shows how learning experiences within the subjects need to contribute to the
attainment of the wider goals.[15]

There are many common misconceptions of what curriculum is and one of the most common is
that curriculum only entails a syllabus. Smith (1996,2000) says that, "A syllabus will not
generally indicate the relative importance of its topics or the order in which they are to be
studied. Where people still equate curriculum with a syllabus they are likely to limit their
planning to a consideration of the content or the body of knowledge that they wish to transmit".
Regardless of the definition of curriculum, one thing is certain. The quality of any educational
experience will always depend to a large extent on the individual teacher responsible for it
(Kelly, 2009).

Curriculum is almost always defined with relation to schooling.[14] According to some, it is the
major division between formal and informal education.[14] However, under some circumstances it
may also be applied to informal education or free-choice learning settings. For instance, a
science museum may have a "curriculum" of what topics or exhibits it wishes to cover. Many
after-school programs in the US have tried to apply the concept; this typically has more success
when not rigidly clinging to the definition of curriculum as a product or as a body of knowledge
to be transferred. Rather, informal education and free-choice learning settings are more suited to
the model of curriculum as practice or praxis.

References
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