Chapter one

Types of Control System

1- Basic Elements of Control System : -
1.1 Switch Circuit Types : -
The following diagrams are circuit configuration for 2- and 3-pole safety switches. Safety
switches may be fusible, non-fusible, or fusible with a solid neutral.

The circuit configuration required depends on the load and on the power supply
connected to it. For example, a three-phase motor needs a 3-pole switch to connect it to
a three-phase power supply. If over current protection is required, a fusible 3 - pole
safety switch should be selected, as in the following example.

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Selecting a Switch : -
There are three important features to consider when selecting a switch:
• Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)
• Ratings (maximum voltage and current)
• Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)

Switch Contacts : -
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:
• Pole - number of switch contact sets.
• Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double.
• Way - number of conducting positions, three or more.
• Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.
• Open - off position, contacts not conducting.
• Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.
For example: the simplest on-off switch has one set of contacts (single pole) and one
switching position which conducts (single throw). The switch mechanism has two
positions: open (off) and closed (on), but it is called 'single throw' because only one
position conducts.

Switch Contact Ratings : -

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Switch contacts are rated with a maximum voltage and current, and there may be
different ratings for AC and DC. The AC values are higher because the current falls to zero
many times each second and an arc is less likely to form across the switch contacts.
For low voltage electronics projects the voltage rating will not matter, but you may need
to check the current rating. The maximum current is less for inductive loads (coils and
motors) because they cause more sparking at the contacts when switched off.

Standard Switches : -

Type of Switch Circuit Symbol Example

ON-OFF Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST

A simple on-off switch. This type can be used to

switch the power supply to a circuit.

When used with mains electricity this type of switch

must be in the live wire, but it is better to use a DPST
switch to isolate both live and neutral. SPST toggle switch

(ON)-OFF Push-to-make = SPST Momentary

A push-to-make switch returns to its normally open (off) Push-to-make switch

position when you release the button, this is shown by the
brackets around ON. This is the standard doorbell switch.

ON-(OFF) Push-to-break = SPST Momentary

A push-to-break switch returns to its normally closed (on) Push-to-break switch

position when you release the button.

ON-ON Single Pole, Double Throw = SPDT

This switch can be on in both positions, switching on a

separate device in each case. It is often called a
changeover switch. For example, a SPDT switch can be
used to switch on a red lamp in one position and a green
lamp in the other position. SPDT toggle switch

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A SPDT toggle switch may be used as a simple on-off switch
by connecting to COM and one of the A or B terminals
shown in the diagram. A and B are interchangeable, so
switches are usually not labeled.

ON-OFF-ON SPDT Centre Off

A special version of the standard SPDT switch. It has a
third switching position in the centre which is off. SPDT slide switch
(PCB mounting)
Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) versions are also available
where the switch returns to the central off position when
released.

SPDT rocker switch

Dual ON-OFF Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST

A pair of on-off switches which operate together (shown

by the dotted line in the circuit symbol).

A DPST switch is often used to switch mains electricity

because it can isolate both the live and neutral DPST rocker switch
connections.

Dual ON-ON Double Pole, Double Throw = DPDT

A pair of on-on switches which operate together (shown

by the dotted line in the circuit symbol).

A DPDT switch can be wired up as a reversing switch for a

motor as shown in the diagram.
DPDT slide switch
ON-OFF-ON
DPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT switch. It has a third
switching position in the centre which is off. This can be
very useful for motor control because you have forward,
off and reverse positions. Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON)
versions are also available where the switch returns to the
central off position when released. Wiring for Reversing Switch

Special Switches : -

Type of Switch Example

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Push-Push Switch (e.g. SPST = ON-OFF)

This looks like a momentary action push switch but it is a standard on-off
switch: push once to switch on, push again to switch off. This is called a latching
action.

Micro switch (usually SPDT = ON-ON)

Micro switches are designed to switch fully open or closed in response to small
movements. They are available with levers and rollers attached.

Key switch

A key operated switch. The example shown is SPST.

Tilt Switch (SPST)

Tilt switches contain a conductive liquid and when tilted this bridges the
contacts inside, closing the switch. They can be used as a sensor to detect the
position of an object. Some tilt switches contain mercury which is poisonous.

Reed Switch (usually SPST)

The contacts of a reed switch are closed by bringing a small magnet near the
switch. They are used in security circuits, for example to check that doors are
closed. Standard reed switches are SPST (simple on-off) but SPDT (changeover)
versions are also available.

Warning: reed switches have a glass body which is easily broken!

DIP Switch (DIP = Dual In-line Parallel)

This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches, the example shown has 8
switches. The package is the same size as a standard DIL (Dual In-Line)
integrated circuit.

This type of switch is used to set up circuits, e.g. setting the code of a remote
control.

Multi-pole Switch

The picture shows a 6-pole double throw switch, also known as a 6-pole
changeover switch. It can be set to have momentary or latching action. Latching
action means it behaves as a push-push switch, push once for the first position,

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push again for the second position etc.

Multi-way Switch

Multi-way switches have 3 or more conducting positions. They may have

several poles (contact sets). A popular type has a rotary action and it is
available with a range of contact arrangements from 1-pole 12-way to 4-
pole 3 way. Multi-way rotary switch

The number of ways (switch positions) may be reduced by adjusting a

stop under the fixing nut. For example if you need a 2-pole 5-way switch
you can buy the 2-pole 6-way version and adjust the stop.

Contrast this multi-way switch (many switch positions) with the multi-
pole switch (many contact sets) described above.
1-pole 4-way switch symbol

Fig. 1
Switches are used to open/close a circuit.

Fig. 2
S1 is a "single pole on/off" switch in the off position.

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Fig. 3 This is a "2 pole on/off" switch which completely isolates the lamp from the supply
in the off position. This may be important if it is a high voltage supply. The dotted line
indicates that S1a and S1b are part of the same switch "ganged" together and operate
simultaneously.

Fig. 4: -This is a "single pole changeover" switch. Either lamp 1 or lamp 2 is on.

Fig. 5 :- This is a "2 pole changeover" switch. The unlit lamp is completely isolated from
the supply. Again, S1a and S1b are part of the same switch.

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Fig. 6 This is a "single pole 5 way" switch. It can select 1 of 5 circuits. You can have 2p
5w, 3p 4w etc.

Fig. 7 ) This shows :

(1) a "normally closed, push to break".
(2) a "normally open, push to make".
(3) both used together to make a "changeover" switch.

Fig. 8: - This is a "changeover" slide switch. When operated a-b opens and b-c closes.

1- 3 - Electromagnetic Relay : -
relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a
magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on
or off so relays have two switch positions, and they are double throw (changeover) switches.

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 Circuit symbol for a relay
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the
first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit.
There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic
and mechanical. The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V
relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for
example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever
on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the
switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them,
making the relay DPDT.

Relays

The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:
• COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
• NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
• NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.

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 • Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is
on.
• Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is
off.

Choosing a relay : -

You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:

1. Physical size and pin arrangement

If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its dimensions
and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the supplier's
catalogue.
2. Coil voltage
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay coil.
Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays are also readily
available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a little lower
than their rated value.
3. Coil resistance
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use
Ohm's law to calculate the current:

supply voltage
Relay coil current =
coil resistance

4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a current of 30mA.
5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)
The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You will
need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is usually
higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".

6. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)

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 Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole changeover"
(SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO).

example).

Advantages of relays:

• Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
• Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
• Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
• Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:

• Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

• Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per
second.
• Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
• Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power transistor may
be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when switched off. This can
damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this a diode is connected across the
coil. The cathode of the diode is connected to the most positive end of the coil.

• Overload Relay

A device used to protect a motor from damage resulting from an overcurrent.

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 • Overcurrent

A current in excess of the rated current for a device or conductor. An overcurrent can
result from an overload, short circuit, or ground fault.

• Overload

Can refer to an operating condition more than a full-load rating or a current high enough
to cause damage if it is present long enough. Overload does not refer to a short circuit or
ground fault.

1.4- Contactor :-

A device used to energize and de-energize an electrical circuit.

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 2- Circuit Breakers : -
Residential and Commercial Circuit Breakers : -
There are several circuit breakers that are used in residential, commercial and light
industrial applications. These circuit breakers are normally plug-in or bolt-on types that
mount in load centers or panel boards . Other types are also available, for example,
circuit breakers that mount on a DIN rail. There are several variations of circuit breakers,
and this section will attempt to explain the most popular of them.

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 • Internal Accessories : -

An accessory is an addition that adds to the performance of a circuit breaker or adapts

the circuit breaker for specific application requirements. Various accessories are available

for Siemens molded case circuit breakers. Internal accessories are used to modify a

breaker’s performance. The four internal accessories are shunt trip, under voltage trip,

auxiliary switches, and bell alarm.

The circuit breaker internal accessories are mounted on the side of the circuit breaker as

shown in the following illustration.

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To mount internal accessories in circuit breakers, the cover is removed and the
accessories installed as shown in the following illustrations.

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 • Shunt Trip : -
It is sometimes necessary to trip a breaker from a remote location. For example, if
someone were to get caught in a piece of machinery, anyone can push a “panic button”
tripping the breaker. One or all critical circuit breakers may be tripped at the push of a
button from a distant control point by using a shunt trip device. The shunt trip device
consists of a coil in series with a limit switch. When the circuit breaker contacts are
closed the limit switch is closed. Depressing a customer supplied
pushbutton energizes the shunt trip coil, causing the breaker’s mechanical latch to
disengage the trip mechanism and opening the circuit breaker’s contacts. When the
circuit breaker’s contacts open the limit switch also opens, removing power from the
shunt trip coil. As with any trip the breaker must be reset manually.

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 • Under voltage Trip : -
The under voltage trip device is designed to automatically trip the circuit breaker when

the supply voltage drops to a low value (35-70% of nominal line voltage). The device also

prevents the circuit breaker from being reclosed until the supply voltage

returns to at least 85% of its normal level.

• Auxiliary Switch : -

An auxiliary switch consists of one set of normally open and one set of normally closed

contacts. Contact “A” is open when the circuit breaker is in the “Off” or “Tripped”

conditions. Contact “B” is closed when the circuit breaker is in the “Off” or “Tripped”

conditions. This accessory is used to indicate whether a circuit breaker is on or off from a

remote location. For example, in the following illustration an indicator light is connected

to a customer’s power supply through contact “A”.

When the circuit breaker is switched on, the light illuminates, indicating the circuit

breaker’s contacts are closed and the breaker is supplying power to the load. When the

circuit breaker is switched off, contact “A” opens, turning the indicator light off.

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 • Bell Alarm Switch : -
The bell alarm switch differs from the auxiliary switch in that it only functions when the

circuit breaker trips. Opening and closing the circuit breaker by means of the operating

handle does not affect the position of the alarm contacts. The “A” contact closes when

the circuit breaker trips. The “B” contact opens when the circuit breaker trips. A horn or

indicator light can be used to indicate the circuit breaker has tripped.

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• Electric Motor Operator : -
It is designed to open the Motor Operator, close and reset a circuit breaker with a

remote control. It is mounted on the face of the circuit breaker so that it can engage the

breaker’s operating handle. The built-in motor is connected to remote pushbuttons.

Pressing the “ON” pushbutton causes the electric motor to move the circuit breaker to

the “ON” position. Pressing the “OFF” pushbutton causes the electric motor to move the

circuit breaker to the “OFF” position. To reset the circuit breaker from the tripped

position, press the “OFF” pushbutton to move the handle to the “OFF” position. Then

press the “ON” pushbutton to the close the breaker contacts.

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Electrical Circuit Symbol : -

Circuit symbols are used in circuit diagrams which show how a circuit is connected together. The actual
layout of the components is usually quite different from the circuit diagram. To build a circuit you need
a different diagram showing the layout of the parts on strip board or printed circuit board.

Wires and connections

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
To pass current very easily from one part of a circuit to
Wire
another.
A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are connected
(joined), but it is sometimes omitted. Wires connected at
Wires joined
'crossroads' should be staggered slightly to form two T-
junctions, as shown on the right.
In complex diagrams it is often necessary to draw wires
crossing even though they are not connected. I prefer
Wires not joined the 'hump' symbol shown on the right because the
simple crossing on the left may be misread as a join
where you have forgotten to add a 'blob'!

Power Supplies
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Supplies electrical energy.
Cell The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).
A single cell is often called a battery, but strictly a battery is two or
more cells joined together.

Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more than one cell.

Battery
The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).

Supplies electrical energy.

DC supply
DC = Direct Current, always flowing in one direction.
Supplies electrical energy.
AC supply
AC = Alternating Current, continually changing direction.
A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the current
Fuse
flowing through it exceeds a specified value.
Two coils of wire linked by an iron core. Transformers are
used to step up (increase) and step down (decrease) AC
Transformer voltages. Energy is transferred between the coils by the
magnetic field in the core. There is no electrical connection
between the coils.
Earth A connection to earth. For many electronic circuits this is
(Ground) the 0V (zero volts) of the power supply, but for mains

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 electricity and some radio circuits it really means the earth.
It is also known as ground.

Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A transducer which converts electrical energy to light.
Lamp (lighting) This symbol is used for a lamp providing illumination, for
example a car headlamp or torch bulb.
A transducer which converts electrical energy to light.
Lamp (indicator) This symbol is used for a lamp which is an indicator, for
example a warning light on a car dashboard.
Heater A transducer which converts electrical energy to heat.

A transducer which converts electrical energy to kinetic

Motor
energy (motion).

Bell A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

Buzzer A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

A coil of wire which creates a magnetic field when

current passes through it. It may have an iron core inside
Inductor
the coil. It can be used as a transducer converting
(Coil, Solenoid)
electrical energy to mechanical energy by pulling on
something.

Switches
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A push switch allows current to flow only when the
Push Switch
button is pressed. This is the switch used to operate a
(push-to-make)
doorbell.
Push-to-Break This type of push switch is normally closed (on), it is
Switch open (off) only when the button is pressed.
SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw.
On-Off Switch
An on-off switch allows current to flow only when it is
(SPST)
in the closed (on) position.
SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw.
A 2-way changeover switch directs the flow of current
2-way Switch
to one of two routes according to its position. Some
(SPDT)
SPDT switches have a central off position and are
described as 'on-off-on'.

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 DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw.
Dual On-Off
A dual on-off switch which is often used to switch
Switch
mains electricity because it can isolate both the live
(DPST)
and neutral connections.

DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw.

Reversing
This switch can be wired up as a reversing switch for a
Switch
motor. Some DPDT switches have a central off
(DPDT)
position.

An electrically operated switch, for example a 9V

battery circuit connected to the coil can switch a 230V
Relay
AC mains circuit.
NO = Normally Open, COM = Common, NC = Normally Closed.

Resistors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A resistor restricts the flow of current, for example to
Resistor limit the current passing through an LED. A resistor is
used with a capacitor in a timing circuit.
This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts (a rheostat)
is usually used to control current. Examples include:
Variable Resistor
adjusting lamp brightness, adjusting motor speed, and
(Rheostat)
adjusting the rate of flow of charge into a capacitor in a
timing circuit.
This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts (a
Variable Resistor potentiometer) is usually used to control voltage. It can
(Potentiometer) be used like this as a transducer converting position
(angle of the control spindle) to an electrical signal.
This type of variable resistor (a preset) is operated with a
small screwdriver or similar tool. It is designed to be set
Variable Resistor when the circuit is made and then left without further
(Preset) adjustment. Presets are cheaper than normal variable
resistors so they are often used in projects to reduce the
cost.

Capacitors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor is used
Capacitor with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be used as
a filter, to block DC signals but pass AC signals.
A capacitor stores electric charge. This type must be
Capacitor,
connected the correct way round. A capacitor is used
polarised
with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be used as

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 a filter, to block DC signals but pass AC signals.

Variable Capacitor A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.

This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is operated

Trimmer with a small screwdriver or similar tool. It is designed
Capacitor to be set when the circuit is made and then left
without further adjustment.

Diodes
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A device which only allows current to flow in one
Diode
direction.

LED
A transducer which converts electrical energy to light.
Light Emitting Diode

A special diode which is used to maintain a fixed voltage

Zener Diode
across its terminals.

Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.

Transistors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other components

Transistor NPN
to make an amplifier or switching circuit.

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other components

Transistor PNP
to make an amplifier or switching circuit.

Phototransistor A light-sensitive transistor.

Audio and Radio Devices

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

Microphone A transducer which converts sound to electrical energy.

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 Earphone A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

Loudspeaker A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

Piezo Transducer A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

An amplifier circuit with one input. Really it is a block diagram

Amplifier
symbol because it represents a circuit rather than just one
(general symbol)
component.

Aerial A device which is designed to receive or transmit radio signals.

(Antenna) It is also known as an antenna.

Meters and Oscilloscope

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
Voltmeter The proper name for voltage is 'potential difference', but most people
prefer to say voltage!

Ammeter An ammeter is used to measure current.

A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter which is used to

Galvanometer
measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or less.

An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance. Most

Ohmmeter
multimeters have an ohmmeter setting.

An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of electrical

signals and it can be used to measure their voltage and
Oscilloscope
time period.

Sensors (input devices)

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

A transducer which converts brightness (light) to resistance

LDR (an electrical property).
LDR = Light Dependent Resistor

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 A transducer which converts temperature (heat) to
Thermostat
resistance (an electrical property).

Logic Gates

Logic gates process signals which represent true (1, high, +Vs, on) or false (0, low, 0V, off). For more
information, please see the Logic Gates page. There are two sets of symbols: traditional and IEC
(International Electrotechnical Commission).
Gate Traditional
IEC Symbol Function of Gate
Type Symbol
A NOT gate can only have one input. The 'o' on the
output means 'not'. The output of a NOT gate is the
NOT inverse (opposite) of its input, so the output is true
when the input is false. A NOT gate is also called an
inverter.

An AND gate can have two or more inputs. The

AND output of an AND gate is true when all its inputs are
true.

A NAND gate can have two or more inputs. The 'o'

on the output means 'not' showing that it is a Not
NAND
AND gate. The output of a NAND gate is true unless
all its inputs are true.

An OR gate can have two or more inputs. The

OR output of an OR gate is true when at least one of its
inputs is true.

A NOR gate can have two or more inputs. The 'o' on

the output means 'not' showing that it is a Not OR
NOR
gate. The output of a NOR gate is true when none of
its inputs are true.

An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs. The output

EX-OR of an EX-OR gate is true when its inputs are different
(one true, one false).

An EX-NOR gate can only have two inputs. The 'o' on

EX- the output means 'not' showing that it is a Not EX-
NOR OR gate. The output of an EX-NOR gate is true when
its inputs are the same (both true or both false).

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