ME 432 Aerodynamics
Chapter 3: Incompressible
Flow Over Airfoils
Reference: Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, John. D. Anderson, Mc.
Graw-Hill.
Airfoil Nomenclature
• Mean camber line: Locus of points halfway between upper and lower
surfaces.
• Leading and trailing edges: The most forward and rearward points on
the mean camber line.
• Chord line: Straight line connecting leading and trailing edges.
• Chord: Length of the chord line.
• Camber: Maximum distance between the mean camber line and the
chord line. (Airfoil is symmetric if camber is zero).
• Thickness: Distance between upper and lower surfaces measured
perpendicular to the chord line.
Some useful web sites
• [Link]
• [Link]
Airfoil Characteristics
• Angle of attack (α): Angle between the chord line and
freestream velocity.
• At low-to-moderate angles of attack (attached flow region),
Cl, varies linearly with α.
• The sloper of this line is called the lift slope and denoted by
a0.
Airfoil Characteristics
• At high angles of attack (separated flow region), Cl, shows a
considerable decrease.
• The airoil is said to be stalled.
• Separation is due to viscous effects.
Airfoil Characteristics
• The maximum value of Cl occuring before stall is called Cl,max.
• The angle of attack at which Cl = 0 is called the zero-lift angle
of attack, ɑL = 0.
• Zero-lift angle of attack is equal to 0 for symmetric airfoils.
Solid lines denote inviscid flow
theory results.
Drag of an airfoil (profile drag) is the
sum of skin friction drag due to wall
shear stress and pressure drag (form
drag) due to flow separation
Moment coefficient can be
calculated about any point
on the chord line.
However, there is a special
point called the aerodynamic
center about which the
moment coefficient is
(almost) indepedent of ɑ.
Kutta Condition
• Recall for the lifting flow over a circular cylinder; there is an
infinite number of potential flow solutions were possible
corresponding to the infinite choice of the circulation.
• The same situation applies to the potential flow over an
airfoil; for a given airfoil at a given angle of attack, there are
an infinite number of valid theoretical solutions,
corresponding to an infinite choice of Γ.
Kutta Condition
• In reality, a given airfoil at a given angle of attack produces a
single value of lift.
• Clearly, the philosophy discussed previously is not complete.
• We need an additional condition that fixes Γ for a given
airfoil at a given angle of attack.
• Which one looks reasonable??
Kutta Condition
• The circulation should be such that the flow smoothly
leaves the top and the bottom surfaces of the airfoil at the
trailing edge.
• This is known as the Kutta condition.
Kelvin's Circulation Theorem
• For an incompressible, inviscid flow the Kelvin's circulation
theorem states:
Kelvin's Circulation Theorem
• If an inviscid, incompressible flow is initially irrotational then
it will remain irrotational.
Starting Vortex
• Consider an airfoil in a fluid at rest (V = 0)
• The circulation about any closed curce will be zero.
• If increasing the velocity to a finite value will cause the
airfoil produce lift, then the circulation around the airfoil will
be finite.
• Kelvin's circulation theorem requires a vortex with opposite
circulation form down stream of the airfoil.
Starting Vortex
• According to Bernoulli principle, for a lifting airfoil, the
velocity on the upper surface should be higher than the
velocity on the lower surface.
• How does this happen?
The Vortex Sheet
• Recall: Circulation is required for lifting flow.
• Connsider an infinite number of point vortices with
infinitessimally small strengths placed side by side.
• They for a so called vortex sheet.
• Let s be distance measured along the vortex sheet and γ (s) be
the strenght of the sheet per unit length.
Application to and Airfoil Geometry
• We can roll the vortex sheet in to an airfoil shape and place
in a uniform flow.
• The variation of γ as a function of s should be such that the
airfoil shape becomes the streamline of the flow.
• Then,
• No analytical solution exists but we can perform a numerical
solution. (e.g. panel method)
Thin Airfoil Approximation
• When the airfoil under consideration is thin, then we can
place the vortex sheet along the mean camber line and find
the distribution of γ such that the mean camber line
becomes a streamline of the flow.
• This approximation makes analytical solution possible.
• Thin airfoil theory.
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Symmetric Airfoil
• Recall: When the airfoil
under consideration is
thin, then we can place
the vortex sheet along
the mean camber line.
• w' is the component of
velocity normal to the
camber line induced by
the vortex sheet.
• As a further
approximation we will
place the sheet on the
chord line.
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Symmetric Airfoil
• We will try to find the γ (x) such that the mean camber line
is a streamline of the flow.
• Kutta condition:
• The normal velocity at a point on the mean camber line:
• Since the flow is tangent to a streamline
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Symmetric Airfoil
• For a thin airfoil at small angle of attack
• Angles must be in radians!!!
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Symmetric Airfoil
• The velocity dw at point x induced by the elemental vortex
at point ξ
• Then the total induced velocity
• The net normal velocity on the mean camber line should be
zero
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Symmetric Airfoil
• For a symmetric airfoil
• Then,
• For the solution let's define
0≤θ≤π
• Then,
• Since x is a fixed point we can write
• Then,
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Symmetric Airfoil
• From mathematical theory of integral equations
• Kutta condition: TE is at θ≤π
• Using L'Hospital rule:
• Then the circulation is
• Using the value found above
• From Kutta-Joukowski theorem
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Symmetric Airfoil
• Then, the lift coefficient
• Which gives
• Lift slope:
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Symmetric Airfoil
• Moment Coefficient:
• Taking moment about the LE
• Using
• Then the moment coefficient
• Since
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Symmetric Airfoil
• Moment about the quarter-chord location
• Then,
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Cambered Airfoil
• Recall:
• For cambered airfoil dz/dx is finite.
• Again using
• We can get
• Then, again from mathematical theory of integral equations,
• Recall for a symmetric airfoil
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Cambered Airfoil
• This gives:
• Then the lift per unit span:
• Lift Coefficient:
• Recall:
• Lift Slope:
• Identical to the symmetric airfoil.
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Cambered Airfoil
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Cambered Airfoil
• Lift coefficient
• Since
• Then,
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Cambered Airfoil
• Moment about the leading edge (recall from symmetric
airfoil
• We have
• We can obtain:
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Cambered Airfoil
• Moment about the quarter chord
• Recall for symmetric airfoil
• Unlike the symmetric airfoil, the quarter chord is not the
center of pressure for a cambered airfoil.
• However, the moment about the quarter chord is
independent of angle of attack.
• The quarter-chord point is the theoretical location of the
aerodynamic center for a cambered airfoil (also for a
symmetric airfoil).
Thin Airfoil Theory for a Cambered Airfoil
• Center of pressure location:
• Since,
• The center of pressure for a cambered airfoil varies with the
lift coefficient.
• As the angle of attack changes, the center of pressure also
changes.
• As the lift approaches zero, xcp moves toward infinity;