This module provides an overview of the fundamental concepts in Science,

Technology, and Society (STS), exploring their interrelationships and historical

context. It examines how scientific and technological advancements have shaped
societies and environments and how societal factors influence the direction of
scientific and technological progress. The module also delves into key terms,
paradigm shifts, and the impact of STS on various aspects of life, including ethics
and policy.

This module discusses the meaning and significance of science, technology,

and society. It explores how science and technology both shape and are
shaped by social, cultural, political, and economic contexts throughout history.
Some key developments in science and technology are highlighted, such as
the wheel, compass, printing press, combustion engine, telephone, and
penicillin. These innovations facilitated areas like transportation,
communication, and medicine, greatly impacting society. While technology
brings advantages, it also presents disadvantages that must be considered.
Science, Technology, and Society (STS) explores how scientific and
technological developments impact society and the environment, and how
society also influences the direction of scientific progress and technological
innovation.

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. explained the scope of the study of STS; and
2. demonstrated preparedness and readiness in the study of STS.

General Concepts Related to Science, Technology, and Society

What is science?

Science and technology innovations are prevalent in our society. It permeates our
everyday activities, as well as the tools that we use, from the most simple to the
most complex. For you to completely grasp the impact of science and technology on
our society, it is necessary to study some concepts related to science and
technology. Science comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning ‘knowledge.’ It
refers to a systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge
about how the universe behaves through observation, experimentation, or both.
Nature of Science

It is important to understand the nature of science because it is a critical component

of scientific literacy. It enhances your understanding of science concepts and
enables you to make informed decisions about scientifically based personal and
societal issues. The following sums up the nature of science:

The world is understandable. Science presumes that the things and events in the
universe occur in consistent patterns that are comprehensible through careful,
systematic study. Scientists believe that through the use of the intellect, and with the
aid of instruments that extend the senses, people can discover patterns in all of
nature.

Science Explains and Predicts. Scientists strive to make sense of observations of

phenomena by constructing explanations that are consistent with currently accepted
scientific principles. Such explanations or theories may be either broad or restricted,
but they must be logically sound and incorporate a significant body of scientifically
valid observations. The credibility of scientific theories often comes from their ability
to show relationships among phenomena that previously seemed unrelated. For
example, the theory of moving continents has grown in credibility as it has shown
relationships among diverse phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanoes, the match
between types of fossils on different continents, the shapes of continents, and the
contours of the ocean floors.

Science Demands Evidence. The validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to

observations of phenomena. Hence, scientists concentrate on getting accurate data.
Such evidence is obtained by observations and measurements taken in situations
that range from natural settings (such as a forest) to completely contrived ones (such
as the laboratory). To make their observations, scientists use their senses, and
instruments (such as microscopes) that enhance those senses and instruments that
tap characteristics quite different from what humans can sense (such as magnetic
fields). Scientists observe passively (earthquakes, bird migrations), make collections
(rocks, shells), and actively probe the world (as by boring into the earth's crust or
administering experimental medicines).

Scientific Ideas are Open to Change. Science is more of a process than a set body of
knowledge. Scientists are always testing and revising their ideas, and as new
observations are made, existing ideas may be challenged. Ideas may be replaced
with new ideas that better fit the facts, but more often, existing ideas are simply
revised. For example, when scientists discovered how genes control genetic traits,
they didn't throw out Mendel's laws of inheritance. The discoveries helped to explain
why Mendel's laws apply to certain traits but not others. They showed that Mendel's
laws are part of a bigger picture. Through many discoveries over time, scientists
have gradually built an increasingly accurate and detailed understanding of the
natural world.
Science is a complex social activity. Scientific work involves many individuals doing
many different kinds of work and goes on to some degree in all nations of the world.
Men and women of all ethnic and national backgrounds participate in science and its
applications. These people - scientists and engineers, mathematicians, physicians,
technicians, computer programmers, librarians, and others - may focus on scientific
knowledge either for its own sake or for a particular practical purpose, and they may
be concerned with data gathering, theory building, instrument building, or
communication.

Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions. There are beliefs that - by
their very nature - cannot be proved or disproved (such as the existence of
supernatural powers and beings or the true purposes of life).

In other cases, a scientific approach that may be valid is likely to be rejected as

irrelevant by people who hold to certain beliefs (such as in miracles, fortune-telling,
astrology, and superstition). Nor do scientists have the means to settle issues
concerning good and evil, although they can sometimes contribute to the discussion
of such issues by identifying the likely consequences of particular actions, which
may help weigh alternatives.

What is technology?

Technology is not static; it is dynamic. It is transferred from the producer to the

receptor, and different tools can be used in the transfer of technology.

Black and Harrison (1985) defined technology as a disciplined process that uses the
resources of matter, energy, and natural phenomena to achieve human purpose. It is
the practical application of scientific results for the development of tools, equipment,
and techniques. Thus, the inventions of the telescope, of techniques of cooking,
canning, bottling, or preservation, or of medicaments to reduce body pains are seen
as technologies. Technology employs knowledge, skills, and tools to improve human
potential, to solve practical problems, and to modify our environment. It is therefore
concerned with the application of science to obtain practical solutions to the myriad
human problems.

Philosophy of Technology. The philosophy of technology seeks to classify the

objectives of technology and the methods used by technology and hands–on
activities. It also emphasizes that the training environment should be a replica of the
actual environment where the knowledge acquired can be utilized (NTI 2011).

History of Technology. The history of technology is as old as mankind. Tools were

made and used by archaeologists for more than a million years. The discovery and
utilization of fire, a simple energy source with many uses, was a turning point in the
technological revolution.

Technological Products in the Environment. Tendencies of technology abound around

us in the environment. Technology is not only the modern machines like cars,
generators, aeroplanes, and ships, but also things we do and use in our environment
to make work easier. For instance, women use the grinding stone in the kitchen. Pot
moulding is a common technology in Africa.

Technology Transfer. Technology Transfer (also referred to as Transfer of Technology)

is the process of transferring skills, knowledge, technologies, methods of
manufacturing, samples of manicuring, and facilities among governments or
universities and other institutions to ensure that scientific and technological
developments are accessible to a wider range of users who can then further develop
and exploit the technology into new products, processes, applications, materials, or
services. In Technology Transfer, there is a producer and a receptor system. TOTs
are needed to move the technology from the produces to the receptors: example of
TOTs are Marketing tools, which may include fact sheets and special publications,
magazine articles, workshops, exhibits, demonstrations of newly developed
products, videotapes, and market surveys. Other technology transfer tools are aimed
at providing incentives to potential users and commercializes of the technology.
Concept of Society

Society can be defined as a group of humans living together for self-maintenance

and self-perpetuation and sharing their institution and culture (Yager 1992). It could
also be defined as a long–standing group of people sharing cultural aspects such as
languages, dress, norms of behavior and artistic forms. A formal association of
people with similar interest e.g., Medical Society or Science Teachers Society, are all
examples of societies.

Social Institution

A social institution is a social arrangement that directs or channels behaviors in

prescribed ways in important areas of social life (Eitzeu & Zinn, 2001). Social
institution are interrelated sets of normative elements consisting of norms, values,
and role expectations. They are devised by the people making up the society, and
they pass them on to succeeding generations to provide permanent solutions to
society’s perpetually unfinished business. They provide procedures through which
human conduct is patterned and propelled.

Examples of Social Institutions

1. Medicine which takes care of the provision of physical and emotional

health care.

2. Polity as a social institution takes care of the maintenance of order and

the distribution of power.

3. Economic systems are the social system that cares for the production
of goods and services and ownership of property.

Science as a social institution makes for the understanding of the universe.

Impact of Society on Science

Despite the internationality of science and technology, society affects science

positively and negatively.

a) Negative Effects of Society on Science

1. Effects of Cultural/Religious Beliefs and Values: For nearly two
centuries, scientists all over the world faced the threat of the church. For
example, findings particularly in genetics which contradicted the Holybooks
were considered abomination.
2. Scientist such as Maxwell and Charles Darwin faced a lot of societal
condemnation based on Darwin’s publication “The Origin of Species”.
3. The taboos and superstitions held by the society have negatively
affected the growth of science in Nigeria.
4. The belief that science is done by only those with above-average
intelligence and the fear that science is abstract and mathematical have
stereotyped potential young men and women against science.

b) Positive Impact of Society on Science

1. Supporting Science Research: With increasing awareness of the role of
science in moulding the world’s progress, researchers are intensifying in both
pure and applied science.
2. Money needed for researches is provided principally by the
governments of several countries. In developed nations, like United States of
America, Germany, and England, the private sector’s contribution to scientific
research is tremendous. In this way the society affects science positively with
the support for research.
3. Award of Prizes: Universities and other related institutions all over the
world recognize the performance of their students in the various pure and
applied scientific disciplines. Individuals and corporate bodies provide prizes
to the best graduates in various disciplines or courses in science. This has
tremendously motivated college students to have an interest in science and
by implication of the growth of scientific knowledge.

Relationship between Science, Technology and Society

At the time of Industrial Revolution entrepreneurs used scientific and technological

results for the development and improvement of production for profit. New scientific
and technological results led to the creation of new industries, new science, and
technologies. Competition between nations became intense and focused on the
importance of science and technology and the source of national power in the
economy and security. After World War II, science and technology became an
integral part of national policy.
Qualitative Changes in Society
Scientific and technological progress has several effects on society. Some of the
changes are as follows:

i. Materials Prosperity. Since the industrial revolution, science and technology

have shown accelerated progress in energy, physical materials, information and
communications, and medicine, resulting in improvement in people’s health,
economic prosperity, and living conveniences.
ii. Transport Mode. Progress in energy and material technology has given rise to
new transport modes, such as railways, automobiles, airplanes, and ships.
iii. Communication. The development of the telephone, radio, and GSM cellular
phone broaden the range of human activities and scope of human exchange.
iv. Machine Tools. This refers to the large-volume production of goods and
production of diverse types of material.
v. Medical Technology. This resulted in the extension of people’s average life
span, and the infant and child mortality rate was reduced leading to a rise in the
world population.
vi. Globalization. Advocacy that political policies should take worldwide issues into
account before focusing on national or state.
vii. Information Technology (IT). The internet revolution combined with computer
technology led to an information revolution which reduced cost and time required for
information distribution.

Factors Threatening Societal Safety and Security

Despite the advances of science and technology making life more prosperous, there
are issues arising from science and technology progress. Some of the issues
include:

i. Global warming
[Link] of the ozone layer iii. Destruction of
tropical forest iv. Desertification of Nuclear
Radiation
v. Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases such as Ebola and HIV

Historical Roots of STS as an Academic Field

As problems in science and technology continue to rise and become more

observable, the need to pay attention to their interactions with various aspects
of human life, e.g., social, political, and economic, becomes ever more
necessary. How the different aspects of society shape and influence the
progression and further development of science and technology is the area of
concern of a relatively new academic discipline called science, technology, and
society.

Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is a relatively young field that

combines previously independent and older disciplines, such as the history of
science, philosophy of science, and sociology of science. As an academic field,
STS, according to Harvard University’s Kennedy School (2018), traces its roots
to the interwar period and the start of the Cold War. It was during this period
that historians and scientists found interest in the interconnectedness of
scientific knowledge, technological systems, and society. The rise of STS as an
academic field resulted from the recognition that many schools today do not
really prepare students to respond critically, reflectively, and proactively to the
challenges posed by science and technology in the modern world.

The Importance of the Study of STS

STS seeks to bridge the gap between two traditionally exclusive cultures-
humanities (interpretive) and natural sciences (rational)-so that humans to
confront better the moral, ethical, and existential dilemmas brought by the
continued developments in science and technology.

STS also calls for educating the students so that they will apply science and
technology (tools, knowledge, processes and products) to solve problems in an
environment. STS is an important academic discipline to help teachers do
science to be functional and not just graduates who are alien to society. For
example, graduates should be able to apply science and technology while at
school, say to be productive, to grow and carry out disease prevention
measures, and to become self-reliant or employed.

STS aims to help students develop adaptability, equipped with not only
academic skills but also with a range of practical skills that will make them a
functional citizen.

Ethical Dilemmas that Reinforce the Study of STS

Human beings are by no means perfect–we struggle with ethical dilemmas

daily and fail in doing what we think or believe to be the right thing more often
than we would like to admit. Unfortunately, these failings are also articulated in
our technology.

To warn us of these failings, the John J. Relly Center for Science and
Technology, and Values at the University of Notre Dame compiles an annual list
of what it determines to be that year’s top 10 ethical dilemmas in science and
technology. The list points to the challenges, questions, and issues that need to
be addressed and resolved when science and technology and humanity
intertwine.
Activity 1: Tech Timeline Challenge
Objective: Trace the development of key technologies and their societal impact.
How to do it:

1. Assign each group a major invention (e.g., electricity, the internet, vaccines)
2. Create a visual timeline: when it was developed, key milestones, and how it
changed society.

Skills Developed: Historical perspective, critical thinking, creativity

Activity 2: Media Analysis – “Science in the News”

Objective: Analyze how media presents science and tech topics.
How to do it:
1. Each group finds a recent news article about science or technology.
2. Present a summary and discuss:
o Is the reporting accurate?
o What is the societal relevance?
o Any ethical concerns?
Skills Developed: Media literacy, evaluation, communication
Activity 3: Global STS Impact Map
Objective: Understand how different societies use or are impacted by science/tech.
How to do it:
1. Assign each group a country or region.
2. Research a scientific/technological advancement and its impact on society
there.
3. Plot on a world map with brief descriptions or images.

Skills Developed: Global awareness, research, comparative analysis

Science, technology, and society are deeply interconnected, with each shaping
and influencing the other. Understanding their relationship is essential to recognizing
how scientific knowledge and technological innovations impact human life, culture,
ethics, the environment, and the development of civilizations throughout history and
into the future.

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