ENSV2SE H1 SURVEYING ENGINEERING
Chapter 6
INTRODUCTION TO SATELLITE SURVEYING (Textbook Ch. 6, p95)
Source: GPS Basics, a publication used by kind permission of GeoSystems Africa
What is GPS and what does it do?
GPS is the shortened form of NAVSTAR GPS. This is an acronym for NAVigation
System with Time And Ranging Global Positioning System.
GPS is a solution for one of man’s longest and most troublesome problems. It
provides an answer to the question .Where on earth am I?
One can imagine that this is an easy question to answer. You can easily locate
yourself by looking at objects that surround you and position yourself relative to
them. But what if you have no objects around you? What if you are in the middle of
the desert or in the middle of the ocean? For many centuries, this problem was
solved by using the sun and stars to navigate. Also, on land, surveyors and explorers
used familiar reference points from which to base their measurements or find their
way.
These methods worked well within certain boundaries. Sun and stars cannot be seen
when it is cloudy. Also, even with the most precise measurements position cannot be
determined very accurately.
After the Second World War, it became apparent to the U.S. Department of Defense
that a solution had to be found to the problem of accurate, absolute positioning.
Several projects and experiments ran during the next 25 years or so, including
Transit, Timation, Loran, Decca etc. All of these projects allowed positions to be
determined but were limited in accuracy or functionality.
At the beginning of the 1970s, a new project was proposed. GPS. This concept
promised to fulfil all the requirements of the US government, namely that one should
be able to determine one’s position accurately, at any point on the earth’s surface, at
any time, in any weather conditions.
GPS is a satellite-based system that uses a constellation of 24 satellites to give a
user an accurate position. It is important at this point to define ‘accurate’. To a hiker
or soldier in the desert, accurate means about 15m. To a ship in coastal waters,
accurate means 5m. To a surveyor, accurate means 1cm or less. GPS can be used
to achieve all of these accuracies in all of these applications, the difference being the
type of GPS receiver used and the technique employed.
GPS was originally designed for military use at any time anywhere on the surface of
the earth. Soon after the original proposals were made, it became clear that civilians
could also use GPS, and not only for personal positioning (as was intended for the
military). The first two major civilian applications to emerge were marine navigation
and surveying. Nowadays applications range from in-car navigation through truck
fleet management to automation of construction machinery.
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System Overview
The total GPS configuration is comprised of three distinct segments:
The Space Segment. Satellites orbiting the earth.
The Control Segment. Stations positioned on the earth’s equator to control the
satellites
The User Segment. Anybody that receives and uses the GPS signal.
How GPS works
There are several different methods for obtaining a position using GPS. The method
used depends on the accuracy required by the user and the type of GPS receiver
available. Broadly speaking, the techniques can be broken down into three basic
classes:
Autonomous Navigation using a single stand-alone receiver. Used by
hikers, ships that are far out at sea and the military. Position Accuracy is
better than 100m for civilian users and about 20m for military users.
Differentially corrected positioning. More commonly known as DGPS, this
gives an accuracy of between 0.5-5m. Used for inshore marine navigation,
GIS data acquisition, precision farming etc.
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Differential Phase position. Gives an accuracy of 0.5-20mm. Used for many
surveying tasks, machine control etc.
Error Sources
Up until this point, it has been assumed that the position derived from GPS is
very accurate and free of error, but there are several sources of error that
degrade the GPS position from a theoretical few metres to tens of metres.
These error sources are:
Ionospheric and atmospheric delays
Satellite and Receiver Clock Errors
Multipath
Dilution of Precision
Selective Availability (S/A)
Anti Spoofing (A-S)
1. Ionospheric and Atmospheric delays
As the satellite signal passes through the ionosphere, it can be slowed down,
the effect being similar to light refracted through a glass block. These
atmospheric delays can introduce an error in the range calculation as the
velocity of the signal is affected. (Light only has a constant velocity in a
vacuum).
The ionosphere does not introduce a constant delay on the signal. There are
several factors that influence the amount of delay caused by the ionosphere.
a. Satellite elevation. Signals from low elevation satellites will be affected
more than signals from higher elevation satellites. This is due to the
increased distance that the signal passes through the atmosphere.
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b. The density of the ionosphere is affected by the sun. At night, there is
very little ionospheric influence. In the day, the sun increases the effect of
the ionosphere and slows down the signal.
The amount by which the density of the ionosphere is increased varies
with solar cycles (sunspot activity). Sunspot activity peaks approximately
every 11 years.
In addition to this, solar flares can also randomly occur and also have an
effect on the ionosphere. Ionospheric errors can be mitigated by using
one of two methods:
- The first method involves taking an average of the effect of the reduction
in velocity of light caused by the ionosphere. This correction factor can
then be applied to the range calculations. However, this relies on an
average and obviously this average condition does not occur all of the
time. This method is therefore not the optimum solution to Ionospheric
Error mitigation.
- The second method involves using ‘dual-frequency’ GPS receivers.
Such receivers measure the L1 and the L2 frequencies of the GPS signal.
It is known that when a radio signal travels through the ionosphere it
slows down at a rate inversely proportional to it’s frequency. Hence, if the
arrival times of the two signals are compared, an accurate estimation of
the delay can be made. Note that this is only possible with dual frequency
GPS receivers. Most receivers built for navigation are single frequency.
c. Water Vapour also affects the GPS signal. Water vapour contained in the
atmosphere can also affect the GPS signal. This effect, which can result
in a position degradation can be reduced by using atmospheric models.
2. Satellite and Receiver clock errors
Even though the clocks in the satellite are very accurate (to about 3
nanoseconds), they do sometimes drift slightly and cause small errors,
affecting the accuracy of the position. The US Department of Defense
monitors the satellite clocks using the Control Segment and can correct any
drift that is found.
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3. Multipath Errors
Multipath occurs when the receiver antenna is positioned close to a large
reflecting surface such as a lake or building. The satellite signal does not
travel directly to the antenna but hits the nearby object first and is reflected
into the antenna creating a false measurement.
Multipath can be reduced by use of special GPS antennas that incorporate a
ground plane (a circular, metallic disk about 50cm (2 feet) in diameter) that
prevent low elevation signals reaching the antenna.
For highest accuracy, the preferred solution is use of a choke ring antenna. A
choke ring antenna has 4 or 5 concentric rings around the antenna that trap
any indirect signals.
Multipath only affects high accuracy, survey-type measurements. Simple
handheld navigation receivers do not employ such techniques.
4. Dilution of Precision
The Dilution of Precision (DOP) is a measure of the strength of satellite
geometry and is related to the spacing and position of the satellites in the sky.
The DOP can magnify the effect of satellite ranging errors.
The range to the satellite is affected by range errors previously described.
When the satellites are well spaced, the position can be determined as being
within the shaded area in the diagram and the possible error margin is small.
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When the satellites are close together, the shaded area increases in size,
increasing the uncertainty of the position. Different types of Dilution of
Precision or DOP can be calculated depending on the dimension.
VDOP . Vertical Dilution of Precision. Gives accuracy degradation in vertical
direction.
HDOP . Horizontal Dilution of Precision. Gives accuracy degradation in
horizontal direction.
PDOP . Positional Dilution of Precision. Gives accuracy degradation in 3D
position.
GDOP . Geometric Dilution of Precision. Gives accuracy degradation in 3D
position and time.
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The most useful DOP to know is GDOP since this is a combination of all the
factors. Some receivers do however calculate PDOP or HDOP which do not
include the time component.
The best way of minimizing the effect of GDOP is to observe as many
satellites as possible. Remember however, that the signals from low elevation
satellites are generally influenced to a greater degree by most error sources.
As a general guide, when surveying with GPS it is best to observe satellites
that are 15° above the horizon. The most accurate positions will generally be
computed when the GDOP is low, (usually 8 or less).
5. Selective Availability (S/A)
Selective Availability is a process applied by the U.S. Department of Defense
to the GPS signal. This is intended to deny civilian and hostile foreign powers
the full accuracy of GPS by subjecting the satellite clocks to a process known
as ‘dithering’ which alters their time slightly. Additionally, the ephemeris (or
path that the satellite will follow) is broadcast as being slightly different from
what it is in reality. The end result is degradation in position accuracy.
It is worth noting that S/A affects civilian users using a single GPS receiver to
obtain an autonomous position. Users of differential systems are not
significantly affected by S/A.
Currently, Selective Availability is switched off.
6. Anti-Spoofing (A-S)
Anti-Spoofing is similar to S/A in that it’s intention is to deny civilian and
hostile powers access to the P-code part of the GPS signal and hence force
use of the C/A code which has S/A applied to it.
Anti-Spoofing encrypts the P-code into a signal called the Y-code. Only users
with military GPS receivers (the US and it’s allies) can de-crypt the Y-code.
Surveying with GPS
Probably even more important to the surveyor or engineer than the theory behind
GPS, are the practicalities of the effective use of GPS.
Like any tool, GPS is only as good as it’s operator. Proper planning and preparation
are essential ingredients of a successful survey, as well as an awareness of the
capabilities and limitations of GPS.
Why use GPS?
GPS has numerous advantages over traditional surveying methods:
1. Intervisibility between points is not required.
2. Can be used at any time of the day or night and in any weather.
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3. Produces results with very high geodetic accuracy.
4. More work can be accomplished in less time with fewer people.
Limitations
In order to operate with GPS it is important that the GPS Antenna has a clear view to
at least 4 satellites. Sometimes, the satellite signals can be blocked by tall buildings,
trees etc. Hence, GPS cannot be used indoors. It is also difficult to use GPS in town
centres or woodland.
Due to this limitation, it may prove more cost effective in some survey applications to
use an optical total station or to combine use of such an instrument with GPS.
RTK Surveys – NB!!!!!
RTK stands for Real Time Kinematic. It is a Kinematic on the Fly survey
carried out in real time.
The Reference Station has a radio link attached and rebroadcasts the data it
receives from the satellites. The Rover also has a radio link and receives the
signal broadcast from the Reference. The Rover also receives satellite data
directly from the satellites via its own GPS Antenna. These two sets of data
can be processed together at the Rover to resolve the ambiguity and therefore
obtain a very accurate position relative to the Reference receiver.
Once the Reference Receiver has been set up and is broadcasting data
through the radio link, the Rover Receiver can be activated.
When it is tracking satellites and receiving data from the Reference, it can
begin the initialization process. This is similar to the initialization performed in
a post processed kinematic on the fly survey, the main difference being that it
is carried out in real-time.
Once the initialization is complete, the ambiguities are resolved and the Rover
can record point and coordinate data. At this time, baseline accuracies will be
in the 1 - 5cm range.
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It is important to maintain contact with the Reference Receiver, otherwise the
Rover may lose the ambiguity. This results in a far less accurate position
being calculated. Additionally, problems may be encountered when surveying
close to obstructions such as tall buildings, trees etc. as the satellite signal
may be blocked.
RTK is quickly becoming the most common method of carrying out high
precision, high accuracy GPS surveys in small areas and can be used for
similar applications as a conventional total station. This includes detail
surveying, setting out etc.
The Radio Link - Most RTK GPS systems make use of small UHF radio
modems. Radio communication is the part of the RTK system that most
people experience difficulty with. It is worth considering the following
influencing factors when trying to optimize radio performance:
1. Power of the transmitting radio.
Generally speaking, the more power, the better the performance. However,
most countries legally restrict output power to 0.5 - 2W.
2. Height of transmitter antenna.
Radio communication can be affected by line of sight. The higher up you can
position the antenna, the less likely you are to get line of sight problems. It will
also increase the overall range of radio communication. The same also
applies to the receiving antenna.
Other influencing factors affecting performance include the length of the cable
to radio antenna (longer cables mean higher losses) and the type of radio
antenna used.
EXERCISES
1. Describe the following:
1.1 NAVSTAR
1.2 Ephemeris data
1.3 Selective Availability
1.4 Multipath
1.5 The GPS Space Segment
2. Explain the difference between good and poor GDOP by means of two neat
sketches of the relevant geometric relationships between the receiver position
and the positions of the satellites.
3. There are several measuring techniques that can be used by most GPS
Survey Receivers. The surveyor should choose the appropriate technique for
the application. Discuss, in point form, the measuring technique known as
Real Time Kinematic.
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