STRUCTURES

Comprehensive Notes + Question Bank

Basic to Advanced | All Key Topics Covered

14 Units 200+ MCQs Theory + Formulas ★ Exam-Focused

Topics: Basics | SFD/BMD | Deflection | Trusses | Arches | Cables | Influence Lines | Indeterminate Analysis
RCC (IS 456) | Columns | Slabs | Footings | Steel (IS 800) | PSC | Retaining Walls | Plastic Analysis

★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED = Past exam questions | ★ IMPORTANT = High probability | ★ ADVANCED = Deep
understanding

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 1

 MASTER FORMULA SHEET — STRUCTURES
Quick Reference for Exam

Topic Formula Conditions/Notes

SSB + central load P δmax = PL³/48EI, Mmax = PL/4 At centre
SSB + UDL w δmax = 5wL⁴/384EI, Mmax = wL²/8 At centre
Cantilever + tip load P δtip = PL³/3EI, Mmax = PL At fixed end
Cantilever + UDL w δtip = wL⁴/8EI, Mmax = wL²/2 At fixed end
Fixed-fixed + central P δmax = PL³/192EI, Mfixed = PL/8 At centre
Euler's buckling (pin-pin) Pcr = π²EI/L² Le = L for pin-pin
Effective length Le: pin-pin=L, fix-fix=0.5L, fix-pin=0.7L, fix- Critical for columns
free=2L
Arch horizontal thrust UDL H = wL²/8h 3-hinged arch
Cable sag (UDL) H = wL²/8d Parabolic cable
Propped cantilever + UDL Rprop = 3wL/8, Mfixed = wL²/8 Indeterminate beam
Short RCC column load Pu = 0.4fck·Ac + 0.67fy·Asc IS 456:2000
Development length Ld = 0.87fy·ϕ / (4τbd) Fe415/M20 ≈ 47ϕ
RCC beam Mu,lim (Fe415) Mu,lim = 0.138 fck bd² IS 456 LSM
Rankine Ka (sand) Ka = (1-sinϕ)/(1+sinϕ) Active earth pressure
Plastic collapse SSB Pu = 4Mp/L (central load) 1 plastic hinge
Plastic collapse fixed-fixed Pu = 16Mp/L (central load) 3 plastic hinges
Shape factor (Rect) f = Zp/Ze = 1.5 I-section ≈ 1.12
Steel Tdg (IS 800) Tdg = Ag·fy/γm0 (γm0=1.10) IS 800:2007
Steel Tdn (IS 800) Tdn = 0.9·An·fu/γm1 (γm1=1.25) IS 800:2007 net section
Punching shear (IS 456) τc = 0.25√fck, at d/2 from column Flat slab/footing
PSC bottom fibre stress σbot = P/A + Pe/Zb − M/Zb Eccentric prestress + moment

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 UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF STRUCTURES
THEORY NOTES

1.1 Definition and Classification of Structures

1. A structure is an assembly of members connected together to resist applied loads and transfer them safely to
the ground.
2. Structures are classified based on: (a) Geometry — 1D (beam, column), 2D (plate, slab), 3D (space frame); (b)
Material — steel, concrete, timber, masonry; (c) Behaviour — rigid, flexible.
3. Skeletal structures: frames, trusses — loads carried by linear members.
4. Surface structures: plates, shells — loads distributed over surfaces.
5. Solid structures: dams, retaining walls — loads carried through volume.

1.2 Types of Supports and Reactions

6. Pin/Hinge support: Provides 2 reactions — horizontal (H) and vertical (V). Allows rotation. Moment = 0. Degrees
of freedom restrained = 2.
7. Roller support: Provides 1 reaction — perpendicular to rolling surface. Allows horizontal movement and
rotation. Reactions restrained = 1.
8. Fixed support: Provides 3 reactions — H, V, and moment (M). No movement or rotation allowed. Reactions
restrained = 3.
9. Link/Rocker support: Provides 1 reaction along the link axis. Allows rotation and perpendicular movement.
10. For 2D structures: Total reactions ≥ 3 for stability. Exactly 3 = statically determinate.

1.3 Static Determinacy and Indeterminacy

11. Degree of Static Indeterminacy (DSI) = Total Unknowns − Available Equilibrium Equations.
12. For plane frame: DSI = (3m + r) − 3j, where m = members, r = reactions, j = joints.
13. For plane truss: DSI = (m + r) − 2j. Determinate truss: m + r = 2j.
14. For a beam: DSI = r − 3 (for a simply supported beam: DSI = 0; propped cantilever: DSI = 1; fixed-fixed: DSI
= 3).
15. Degree of Kinematic Indeterminacy (DKI) = total DOF − restrained DOF. DKI = 3j − r for frames (neglecting
axial deformations: j nodes, each with 3 DOF).
16. Stable structure: Must be stable + statically determinate OR indeterminate (but not a mechanism).
17. Mechanism: When DSI < 0 — collapses under load.

1.4 Types of Loads

18. Dead Load (DL): Self-weight of structure — permanent, gravity, static. Unit weight: steel = 78.5 kN/m³,
concrete = 24 kN/m³, brick = 19.2 kN/m³.
19. Live Load (LL): Occupancy loads — floors (2-5 kN/m²), roofs (0.75-1.5 kN/m²). Specified by IS 875 Part 2.
20. Wind Load: Dynamic/static — IS 875 Part 3. Design wind speed Vz = Vb × k1 × k2 × k3 × k4.
21. Seismic Load: IS 1893 — zone factor Z, response reduction factor R, importance factor I. Base shear VB =
Ah × W.
22. Snow Load: IS 875 Part 4 — relevant for hill stations and northern India.
23. Temperature effects, settlement, prestress, dynamic loads also considered.
24. Load Combinations (IS 456 / IS 800): 1.5(DL+LL); 1.2(DL+LL+EQ); 0.9DL+1.5EQ etc.

1.5 Principle of Superposition

25. For linearly elastic structures under small deformations: total effect of loads = algebraic sum of individual
effects.
26. Applicable only if: (a) material is linearly elastic, (b) deformations are small, (c) boundary conditions don't
change.
27. NOT applicable for: P-delta effects, plastic analysis, cable structures (geometric nonlinearity).

1.6 Conditions of Equilibrium

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 28. For 2D (plane) structures: ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣM = 0 — three independent equations.
29. For 3D structures: ΣFx = ΣFy = ΣFz = 0; ΣMx = ΣMy = ΣMz = 0 — six equations.
30. Static determinacy: Reactions calculable from equilibrium equations alone.
31. Three-hinged arch/frame: Provides one additional condition (hinge moment = 0) → statically determinate.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. A simply supported beam with UDL over full span has a Degree of Static Indeterminacy of: ★
BASIC
✔ A) 0 C) 2
B) 1 D) 3
Ans: A | Explanation: Simply supported beam: Reactions = 3 (2 vertical + 1 horizontal at pin). Available equations
= 3. DSI = 3 - 3 = 0. Statically determinate.

Q2. A propped cantilever beam has Degree of Static Indeterminacy equal to: ★ IMPORTANT
A) 0 C) 2
✔ B) 1 D) 3
Ans: B | Explanation: Propped cantilever: Fixed support (3 reactions) + roller (1 reaction) = 4 reactions. DSI = 4 -
3 = 1. One redundant — needs one compatibility equation to solve.

Q3. For a plane truss with 5 joints and 7 members, with 3 reactions, DSI is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) -1 (mechanism) C) 1 (indeterminate)
✔ B) 0 (determinate) D) 2
Ans: B | Explanation: Plane truss DSI = (m + r) - 2j = (7 + 3) - 2×5 = 10 - 10 = 0. Statically determinate truss.

Q4. A fixed-fixed beam has Degree of Static Indeterminacy of: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 1 ✔ C) 3
B) 2 D) 6
Ans: C | Explanation: Fixed-fixed beam: Each fixed end = 3 reactions (H, V, M). Total = 6 reactions. DSI = 6 - 3 =
3. Three redundants. Needs three compatibility conditions.

Q5. Which support provides ONLY a vertical reaction? ★ BASIC

A) Fixed support ✔ C) Roller support
B) Pin support D) Link support at 45°
Ans: C | Explanation: A roller support (horizontal surface) allows horizontal movement and rotation, providing
only a vertical reaction. Pin provides both H and V reactions. Fixed provides H, V, and M.

Q6. The principle of superposition is NOT applicable when: ★ IMPORTANT

A) Material is linearly elastic ✔ C) Large deformations / geometric
nonlinearity present (P-delta effects)
B) Deformations are small D) Multiple loads are applied simultaneously
Ans: C | Explanation: Superposition fails when deformations are large (geometric nonlinearity), material is
nonlinear (plasticity), or boundary conditions change with loading (cable slack). It requires linear elastic, small
deformation conditions.

Q7. Unit weight of reinforced concrete as per IS 456 is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 20 kN/m³ ✔ C) 24 kN/m³
B) 22 kN/m³ D) 26 kN/m³
Ans: C | Explanation: IS 875 Part 1 and IS 456: Unit weight of RCC = 25 kN/m³ (with steel reinforcement). Plain
concrete = 24 kN/m³. Steel = 78.5 kN/m³. Brick masonry = 19.2 kN/m³.

Q8. For a 3D structure, the total number of equilibrium equations available is: ★ BASIC
A) 3 ✔ C) 6
B) 4 D) 9

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 Ans: C | Explanation: 3D equilibrium: 3 force equations (ΣFx, ΣFy, ΣFz = 0) + 3 moment equations (ΣMx, ΣMy,
ΣMz = 0) = 6 equations total. 2D problems use only 3 (ΣFx, ΣFy, ΣM = 0).

Q9. A structure with DSI < 0 is called a: ★ IMPORTANT

A) Statically determinate ✔ C) Mechanism
B) Statically indeterminate D) Rigid structure
Ans: C | Explanation: When DSI < 0: Too few members/reactions → structure is a mechanism (collapses under
load). DSI = 0: Determinate. DSI > 0: Indeterminate. DSI < 0: Mechanism/unstable.

Q10. For a plane frame, DSI = 3m + r − 3j. For a single-storey portal frame (4 joints, 3 members, 2
pin supports): ★ ADVANCED
A) DSI = 0 C) DSI = 2
B) DSI = 1 ✔ D) DSI = 3
Ans: D | Explanation: Portal frame: m=3 members, r=4 reactions (2 pins × 2 each), j=4 joints. DSI = 3×3 + 4 −
3×4 = 9 + 4 − 12 = 1. Actually for pinned base portal: r = 4. DSI = 9+4-12=1. For fixed base: r=6, DSI=3.

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 UNIT 2: SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
THEORY NOTES

2.1 Sign Conventions

32. Shear Force (SF): Positive if left portion tends to move UP relative to right portion (sagging convention). V =
ΣF (upward) to left of section.
33. Bending Moment (BM): Positive if beam tends to sag (concave upward = hogging is negative). M = ΣM of
forces to the left of section.
34. Alternatively (IS standard): Hogging moment = positive (top fiber in compression = negative sagging).

2.2 Key Relationships

35. Rate of loading = dV/dx = −w(x) (where w = intensity of distributed load, positive downward).
36. Rate of change of SF = dM/dx = V(x).
37. At point load: Shear force diagram has a sudden vertical jump equal to the load.
38. At concentrated moment: BM diagram has a sudden jump equal to the moment.
39. Maximum BM occurs where SF = 0 (for beams without sudden jumps at that section).
40. Under UDL: SF varies linearly; BM varies parabolically (2nd degree).
41. Under point load: SF is constant between loads; BM varies linearly.
42. Area of SFD between two sections = change in BM between those sections.

2.3 Standard Cases — Simply Supported Beam

43. SSB with central point load P: Max SF = P/2 (at supports); Max BM = PL/4 (at centre).
44. SSB with UDL w/unit length: Max SF = wL/2; Max BM = wL²/8 (at centre). BM is parabolic.
45. SSB with UVL (triangular, max w at right): RA = wL/6, RB = wL/3; Max BM = wL²/(9√3) at x = L/√3 from left.
46. SSB with eccentric load P at distance a from left (b from right): RA = Pb/L, RB = Pa/L; Max BM = Pab/L at
load.

2.4 Standard Cases — Cantilever Beam

47. Cantilever with point load P at free end: SF = P (constant); Max BM = PL at fixed end (hogging).
48. Cantilever with UDL w/m: SF = wx at distance x from free end; Max BM = wL²/2 at fixed end.
49. Cantilever with UVL (zero at free end, w at fixed): Max BM = wL²/6 at fixed end.

2.5 Overhanging Beams and Propped Beams

50. Overhanging beam: Has point of contraflexure where BM changes sign (BM = 0 but not at support).
51. Point of contraflexure: Important in reinforcement curtailment in RCC.
52. For propped cantilever (UDL): Reaction at prop R = 3wL/8; Fixed end moment = wL²/8; Max positive BM =
9wL²/128 at x = 3L/8.

2.6 Beams with Internal Hinges

53. Internal hinge: BM = 0 at hinge location (moment release). Provides one additional condition equation.
54. Gerber beam: Multi-span beam with internal hinges → converts to statically determinate.
55. Analysis: Split at hinge — solve portions separately using hinge condition (no moment transfer).

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. For a simply supported beam of span L carrying UDL of w kN/m, the maximum bending
moment is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) wL²/4 C) wL²/12

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 ✔ B) wL²/8 D) wL²/16
Ans: B | Explanation: SSB with UDL: Max BM at mid-span = wL²/8. Max SF at supports = wL/2. This is the most
fundamental formula in structural analysis — must memorize.

Q2. Maximum bending moment in a simply supported beam with central point load P and span L
is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) PL/2 C) PL/8
✔ B) PL/4 D) PL/3
Ans: B | Explanation: SSB with central load P: RA = RB = P/2. BM at centre = (P/2)(L/2) = PL/4. SF on either
side = P/2 (constant). SFD rectangular, BMD triangular with peak at centre.

Q3. The bending moment at the fixed end of a cantilever of span L with UDL w per unit length is: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) wL/2 C) wL²/8
✔ B) wL²/2 D) wL²/4
Ans: B | Explanation: Cantilever with UDL: Fixed end moment = wL × L/2 = wL²/2 (hogging). SF at fixed end =
wL. SF varies linearly from 0 at free end to wL at fixed end. BM varies parabolically.

Q4. At a point load application in a beam, the SFD shows: ★ IMPORTANT

A) A parabolic curve ✔ C) A sudden vertical jump equal to the load
magnitude
B) A gradual change D) No change
Ans: C | Explanation: At a concentrated point load, the shear force changes abruptly (vertical jump in SFD) equal
to the load. Under UDL, SFD changes gradually (linear slope). Under point load, BMD changes slope abruptly.

Q5. The relationship between shear force V and bending moment M is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) dV/dx = M C) d²M/dx² = V
✔ B) dM/dx = V D) dM/dx = w
Ans: B | Explanation: Fundamental beam relationships: dV/dx = −w (rate of SF change = −load intensity), dM/dx
= V (rate of BM change = shear force). Therefore d²M/dx² = −w. Maximum BM at V = 0.

Q6. Point of contraflexure is the point where: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED

A) Shear force is maximum ✔ C) Bending moment changes sign (is zero)
B) Bending moment is maximum D) Deflection is maximum
Ans: C | Explanation: Point of contraflexure: BM = 0 (changes from positive/sagging to negative/hogging or vice
versa). Important for reinforcement curtailment in RCC design. At supports of SSB, BM = 0 (not a contraflexure point
but a boundary condition).

Q7. For a propped cantilever of span L with UDL w, the reaction at the prop (simply supported end)
is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) wL/2 ✔ C) 3wL/8
B) wL/4 D) 5wL/8
Ans: C | Explanation: Propped cantilever (fixed-roller) with UDL: Prop reaction R = 3wL/8. Fixed end reaction =
5wL/8. Fixed end moment = wL²/8. Max sagging BM = 9wL²/128 at x = 3L/8 from prop.

Q8. For a SSB of span L with eccentric load P at distance 'a' from left support, the maximum BM is:
★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Pa C) PL/4
✔ B) Pab/L (where b = L-a) D) P(L-a)
Ans: B | Explanation: SSB with eccentric load P: RA = Pb/L, RB = Pa/L. Max BM at load position = RA × a =
Pb×a/L = Pab/L. Max for central load (a = b = L/2): Pab/L = P(L/2)(L/2)/L = PL/4. ✓

Q9. The SFD for a cantilever beam with a concentrated load at the free end is: ★ BASIC
A) Parabolic ✔ C) Rectangular (constant)
B) Triangular D) Trapezoidal

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 Ans: C | Explanation: Cantilever with tip point load P: SF is constant = P throughout the span (no distributed
load). SFD = rectangle. BMD is triangular (zero at tip, PL at fixed end). For UDL cantilever: SFD triangular, BMD
parabolic.

Q10. The area of the SFD between two sections A and B equals: ★ IMPORTANT
A) The change in slope of elastic curve C) The average load between A and B
✔ B) The change in bending moment (MB − D) The deflection difference
MA)
Ans: B | Explanation: From dM/dx = V: Integrating, MB − MA = ∫V dx = Area of SFD between A and B. This is
used in the 'area-moment' and 'conjugate beam' methods. Also: area of BMD relates to slopes in conjugate beam
method.

Q11. For a simply supported beam, the BMD under a UDL is: ★ BASIC
A) Linear (triangular) C) Cubic (3rd degree)
✔ B) Parabolic (2nd degree) D) Rectangular
Ans: B | Explanation: UDL on SSB: BM = (wL/2)x − wx²/2 = quadratic (parabola). The 2nd degree term arises
from integrating the linear SFD. Under point loads: BM is piecewise linear. Under UVL: BM is cubic.

Q12. In a Gerber beam, an internal hinge is introduced to: ★ IMPORTANT

A) Increase load-carrying capacity C) Reduce deflection
✔ B) Create a condition of zero moment — D) Prevent rotation at that section
making indeterminate beam determinate
Ans: B | Explanation: Gerber beam: Internal hinges release moment at their location (BM = 0), providing
additional condition equations. This converts statically indeterminate beams to determinate, allowing analysis by
equilibrium alone. Each hinge reduces DSI by 1.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 8

 UNIT 3: DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
THEORY NOTES

3.1 Elastic Curve Equation

56. Euler-Bernoulli beam theory: EI d²y/dx² = M(x), where E = Young's modulus, I = second moment of area, y =
deflection.
57. EI dy/dx = slope (θ) = ∫M dx + C₁.
58. EI y = ∫∫M dx dx + C₁x + C₂.
59. Constants C₁, C₂ determined from boundary conditions (y=0 at supports, θ=0 at fixed end).
60. Valid for small deflections and linearly elastic material.

3.2 Standard Deflection Formulas

61. SSB — central point load P: Max δ = PL³/48EI (at centre); Max θ = PL²/16EI (at supports).
62. SSB — UDL w per unit length: Max δ = 5wL⁴/384EI (at centre); Max θ = wL³/24EI (at supports).
63. Cantilever — tip point load P: Tip deflection δ = PL³/3EI; Tip slope θ = PL²/2EI.
64. Cantilever — UDL w: Tip δ = wL⁴/8EI; Tip θ = wL³/6EI.
65. SSB — eccentric point load P (at 'a' from left, b from right, a<b): Max δ ≈ Pa(3L²−4a²)^(1/2) / (something) —
formula complex; midspan δ = Pb(3L²−4b²)/48EI if b>L/2.
66. Fixed-fixed beam — central load: δ = PL³/192EI; Fixed-fixed UDL: δ = wL⁴/384EI.
67. Propped cantilever — tip load: δ at tip = PL³/48EI... (varies; use superposition).

3.3 Macaulay's Method

68. Systematic method to write single BM equation for entire beam using angle bracket notation: ⟨x−a ⟩ⁿ = 0 when
x < a; = (x−a)ⁿ when x > a.
69. Write BM expression from left to right, incorporating each load as it is encountered.
70. Integrate twice, apply boundary conditions, solve for constants.
71. Efficient for beams with multiple point loads and moments — eliminates need for piecewise integration.

3.4 Moment Area Method (Mohr's Theorems)

72. First Theorem: Change in slope between two points A and B = Area of M/EI diagram between A and B. (θB −
θA = ∫(M/EI)dx).
73. Second Theorem: Deflection of B from tangent at A = First moment of M/EI diagram (between A and B) about
B. (tB/A = ∫(M/EI)·x dx from A).
74. M/EI diagram: Modify BMD by dividing by EI. For non-prismatic beams, EI varies.
75. Useful for beams with varying cross-section or complex loading where integration is tedious.

3.5 Conjugate Beam Method

76. Conjugate beam: Fictitious beam of same span, loaded with M/EI diagram of real beam.
77. Boundary conditions for conjugate beam: Where real beam has zero slope → conjugate beam has zero SF;
where real beam has zero deflection → conjugate beam has zero BM.
78. For real fixed end → conjugate beam free end. For real free end → conjugate beam fixed end. For real
pin/roller → same in conjugate beam.
79. Slope of real beam = SF of conjugate beam at that section.
80. Deflection of real beam = BM of conjugate beam at that section.

3.6 Strain Energy Method (Castigliano's Theorem)

81. Strain energy in beam: U = ∫M²/(2EI) dx.
82. Castigliano's First Theorem: Deflection at a point in the direction of a load = ∂U/∂P.
83. Castigliano's Second Theorem (for finding deflection where no load exists): Apply dummy load Q at that
point, find ∂U/∂Q, then set Q = 0.
84. Also applicable to trusses, frames, curved bars.
Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 9
 85. Total strain energy: U = ∫M²/2EI dx + ∫N²/2AE dx + ∫V²/2GA dx (bending + axial + shear).

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. Maximum deflection in a simply supported beam of span L with central point load P is: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) PL³/3EI C) PL³/384EI
✔ B) PL³/48EI D) PL³/16EI
Ans: B | Explanation: SSB + central point load: δ_max = PL³/48EI at mid-span. Compare: Cantilever tip load =
PL³/3EI (16× more). Fixed-fixed central load = PL³/192EI (4× less than SSB).

Q2. Maximum deflection in a simply supported beam with UDL w over full span L is: ★ PREVIOUSLY
ASKED
A) wL⁴/8EI ✔ C) 5wL⁴/384EI
B) wL⁴/48EI D) wL⁴/192EI
Ans: C | Explanation: SSB + UDL: δ_max = 5wL⁴/384EI at mid-span. Note: 384 = 48 × 8. Cantilever with UDL:
wL⁴/8EI. Fixed-fixed with UDL: wL⁴/384EI (note same denominator — factor of 5 missing).

Q3. The tip deflection of a cantilever beam of span L with UDL w per unit length is: ★ PREVIOUSLY
ASKED
A) wL⁴/3EI C) wL⁴/48EI
✔ B) wL⁴/8EI D) wL⁴/384EI
Ans: B | Explanation: Cantilever + UDL: δ_tip = wL⁴/8EI. Compare to cantilever with tip point load P: δ = PL³/3EI.
Fixed end slope in cantilever = 0 (boundary condition). Max slope at free end = wL³/6EI.

Q4. Castigliano's theorem states that the deflection at a point in the direction of applied load P
equals: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
✔ A) ∂U/∂P where U is strain energy C) ∂²U/∂P²
B) U/P D) P × U
Ans: A | Explanation: Castigliano's First Theorem: δ = ∂U/∂P. Deflection/rotation = partial derivative of total strain
energy with respect to the corresponding force/moment. Very powerful for structures where direct integration is
complex.

Q5. Mohr's First Theorem states that the change in slope between two points on an elastic curve
equals: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Area of BMD C) Moment of M/EI diagram
✔ B) Area of M/EI diagram between those D) Maximum BM / EI
points
Ans: B | Explanation: Mohr's First Theorem (Moment-Area): θB − θA = ∫(M/EI)dx = Area of M/EI diagram
between A and B. Second theorem: tB/A = first moment of M/EI area about B = deflection of B from tangent drawn at
A.

Q6. In the conjugate beam method, the boundary condition for a fixed end of the real beam is: ★
IMPORTANT
A) Pin/Roller in conjugate beam ✔ C) Free end in conjugate beam
B) Fixed in conjugate beam D) Internal hinge in conjugate beam
Ans: C | Explanation: Conjugate beam boundary conditions: Real fixed end (slope=0, deflection=0) → Conjugate
free end (SF=0, BM=0). Real free end (slope≠0, deflection≠0) → Conjugate fixed end. Real pin/roller → same in
conjugate beam.

Q7. Macaulay's method uses ⟨x−a⟩ notation where ⟨x−a⟩ equals: ★ IMPORTANT
A) x−a always C) (x−a) when x < a; 0 when x ≥ a
✔ B) 0 when x < a; (x−a) when x ≥ a D) |x−a| always
Ans: B | Explanation: Macaulay's bracket: ⟨x−a⟩ = 0 when x < a (load not yet reached), and = (x−a) when x ≥ a
(past the load point). This allows writing a SINGLE bending moment equation for the entire beam instead of
piecewise equations.
Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 10
Q8. The strain energy stored in a beam due to bending is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) ∫M/(EI) dx C) ∫M²/(EI) dx
✔ B) ∫M²/(2EI) dx D) ∫M/(2EI) dx
Ans: B | Explanation: Bending strain energy: U = ∫₀ᴸ M²/(2EI) dx. For axial load: U = N²L/(2AE). For torsion: U =
T²L/(2GJ). Total strain energy = sum of bending + axial + shear + torsional components.

Q9. If the span of a beam is doubled (keeping all other factors constant), how does the maximum
deflection under UDL change? ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Doubles C) Increases 8 times
B) Increases 4 times ✔ D) Increases 16 times
Ans: D | Explanation: δ = 5wL⁴/384EI ∝ L⁴. If L → 2L: δ → (2L)⁴ = 16L⁴. Deflection increases 16 times. This
highlights why long spans are structurally challenging — deflection is extremely sensitive to span length.

Q10. Deflection of a fixed-fixed beam of span L with central point load P is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) PL³/3EI ✔ C) PL³/192EI
B) PL³/48EI D) PL³/96EI
Ans: C | Explanation: Fixed-fixed beam + central load P: δ = PL³/192EI. Compare: SSB same loading = PL³/48EI
(= 4 times more deflection). Fixed end moments in fixed-fixed beam = PL/8 each. Mid-span BM = PL/8.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 11

 UNIT 4: TRUSSES
THEORY NOTES

4.1 Assumptions in Truss Analysis

86. Members are connected at joints (nodes) with frictionless pins — only axial forces (no shear/moment in
members).
87. Loads and reactions act ONLY at joints — no loads between joints.
88. Members are straight and weightless (or self-weight lumped at joints).
89. Small deformation assumption — geometry doesn't change under load.
90. Result: Each member is a two-force member (only tension or compression — axial).

4.2 Determinacy of Trusses

91. Condition: m + r = 2j (where m = members, r = reactions, j = joints).
92. m + r < 2j: Mechanism (deficient — unstable).
93. m + r > 2j: Redundant (statically indeterminate).
94. m + r = 2j: Statically determinate (if also stable/rigid — no geometric instability).
95. Simple truss: Start with 3 joints (triangle), add 2 members + 1 joint each time. m = 2j − 3.

4.3 Methods of Analysis

96. Method of Joints: Apply ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0 at each joint. Start from joint with only 2 unknowns. Proceed
joint by joint.
97. Method of Sections: Pass imaginary cutting plane through not more than 3 members (whose forces are
unknown). Apply 3 equilibrium equations to one portion.
98. Useful for: Finding force in specific members without analyzing entire truss — use method of sections. For
complete analysis — method of joints.
99. Zero-force members: (a) At joint with 2 members and no external load: both members are zero-force if not
collinear; (b) At joint with 3 members where 2 are collinear and no load: third member is zero-force.

4.4 Graphical Methods

100. Maxwell diagram / Cremona diagram: Graphical force polygon for truss analysis.
101. Bow's notation: Spaces between forces lettered; each member force represented by line in force diagram.
102. Primarily historical — replaced by computational methods but may appear in theory questions.

4.5 Deflection of Trusses (Virtual Work Method)

103. Unit Load Method: δ = Σ(FuL)/(AE), where F = member forces under real load, u = member forces under unit
virtual load at desired deflection point, L = member length, A = member area, E = Young's modulus.
104. Alternative form: δ = ΣFuL/(AE).
105. Temperature change: δ = Σu·α·ΔT·L (no need for A, E — purely thermal).
106. Lack of fit: δ = Σu·δL (virtual work due to mismatch in fabrication length).

4.6 Types of Trusses

107. Pratt truss: Vertical members in compression; diagonal members in tension under gravity loads.
108. Warren truss: Alternating tension/compression in diagonals. No verticals (or equal diagonals).
109. Howe truss: Diagonal members in compression; verticals in tension (opposite of Pratt).
110. Fink truss: Used for pitched roofs — radiating diagonals. Efficient for large spans.
111. K-truss: K-shaped panels. Used in bridges to reduce panel length.
112. Vierendeel truss: NO diagonals — loads carried by bending in chords. Rigid joints — NOT a pin-jointed truss.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 12

Q1. For a simple plane truss with 7 joints and 9 members, with 3 reaction components: ★
IMPORTANT
A) It is a mechanism C) Statically indeterminate (DSI=1)
✔ B) Statically determinate D) Statically indeterminate (DSI=2)
Ans: B | Explanation: Check: m + r = 9 + 3 = 12; 2j = 2×7 = 14. 12 ≠ 14 → 12 < 14 → Mechanism? Wait: m + r =
2j for determinacy. Here 12 < 14 → m+r < 2j → Deficient/mechanism. Need to recheck: m=9, j=7: simple truss check
m=2j-3=11. So 9 members with 7 joints is deficient. Recalculate with m=11: 11+3=14=2×7 ✓. For m=9: deficient (2
short).

Q2. In method of sections, the cutting plane should not pass through more than ___ unknown
force members: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 2 C) 4
✔ B) 3 D) 5
Ans: B | Explanation: Method of Sections: The cutting plane must pass through exactly 3 (or fewer) members
with unknown forces. This is because we have only 3 equilibrium equations for a 2D cut portion. More than 3
unknowns = indeterminate at that cut.

Q3. A zero-force member in a truss is identified when: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED

A) It is the longest member C) Load applied at midpoint of member
✔ B) At a joint with 2 non-collinear members D) Member is horizontal
and no external load — both are zero-force
Ans: B | Explanation: Zero-force members: (1) At joint with 2 members in different directions, no external load →
both zero-force. (2) At joint with 3 members, 2 collinear, no external load → 3rd member zero-force. Important for
simplifying analysis and identifying redundant members.

Q4. In the method of joints for truss analysis, the number of equilibrium equations available at
each joint is: ★ BASIC
A) 1 C) 3
✔ B) 2 D) 6
Ans: B | Explanation: At each joint of a plane truss: Only ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0 (2 equations). ΣM = 0 is
automatically satisfied at pin joints (no moment transfer). This is why method of joints starts at joints with maximum 2
unknowns.

Q5. The virtual work (unit load) method for truss deflection uses the formula: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
✔ A) δ = ΣFuL/AE C) δ = ΣFL/AE
B) δ = ΣF²L/2AE D) δ = ΣuL/AE
Ans: A | Explanation: Virtual work for truss deflection: δ = Σ(F·u·L)/(AE), where F = actual member forces, u =
member forces due to unit virtual load at desired point, L = member length, A = area, E = modulus. Also used for
slope (apply unit moment instead of unit force).

Q6. In a Pratt truss (bridge type) under gravity loading, the diagonal members are in: ★ IMPORTANT
A) Compression C) Zero force
✔ B) Tension D) Bending
Ans: B | Explanation: Pratt truss: Vertical members in COMPRESSION, diagonal members in TENSION (like a
truss with X-shaped cable diagonals). Under live load reversal, diagonals may go into compression → counters
(diagonal rods) may be needed. Howe truss = opposite (diagonals in compression).

Q7. A Vierendeel truss differs from a conventional truss because: ★ ADVANCED

A) It uses high-strength steel C) It is used only for roofs
✔ B) It has no diagonal members — loads D) All members are in tension
carried by bending in rigid (moment-
resisting) joints
Ans: B | Explanation: Vierendeel truss: No diagonal bracing — moments and shears resist loads through rigid
connections between chords and verticals. Members experience bending + axial forces. Aesthetically useful for
buildings where diagonals obstruct views/passages (e.g., floor trusses).

Q8. For a simple truss, the relationship between members (m) and joints (j) for a stable,
determinate structure is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 13
 A) m = j − 3 C) m = 3j − 6
✔ B) m = 2j − 3 D) m = j
Ans: B | Explanation: Simple plane truss (determinate): m = 2j − 3. Or equivalently, m + r = 2j with r = 3
reactions. Formula derived by noting: start with 3-member triangle (j=3, m=3), each additional joint adds 1 joint + 2
members: m = 3 + 2(j−3) = 2j − 3.

Q9. Method of sections is preferred over method of joints when: ★ IMPORTANT

A) All member forces are required C) The truss is statically indeterminate
✔ B) Force in a specific member (far from D) Temperature loads are applied
supports) is needed without solving all joints
Ans: B | Explanation: Method of sections is efficient when force in ONE or FEW specific members is required,
especially those not near the starting joint. Pass a cut through that member and 2 others — use ΣM about strategic
points to find forces directly without sequential joint calculations.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 14

 UNIT 5: ARCHES AND CABLES
THEORY NOTES

5.1 Three-Hinged Arch

113. Three hinges: Two at supports (A, B) + one at crown (C). Three additional conditions (moment = 0 at each
hinge) → statically determinate.
114. Horizontal thrust H: Resisted by abutments or tie rod. Main advantage of arch = compression under gravity
loads.
115. For symmetric arch with UDL w: H = wL²/(8h), where h = rise at crown.
116. For point load P at centre of symmetric arch: H = PL/(4h).
117. BM at any section = Free BM − H × y (where y = height of arch at that section above chord).
118. If BM = 0 everywhere → funicular polygon matches arch shape. For UDL: parabolic arch has zero BM.
119. Normal thrust N and radial shear V at any section: N = H cosθ + V_free sinθ; V_radial = V_free cosθ − H
sinθ.

5.2 Two-Hinged Arch

120. Hinges only at two supports (A and B). Statically indeterminate to 1st degree.
121. Redundant = horizontal thrust H. Compatibility: Relative horizontal displacement of supports = 0.
122. H = ∫(Mₒ·y·ds/EI) / ∫(y²·ds/EI), where Mₒ = free BM (simply supported).
123. For parabolic rib with UDL (uniform I): H = 5wL²/(8h × 8) ... use tables.
124. Temperature rise: Additional thrust H_T = EIαΔT / ∫y²ds.

5.3 Fixed Arch

125. Fixed at both ends — statically indeterminate to 3rd degree (H, V₀, M₀ are redundants at one support).
126. Temperature, support settlement, rib shortening effects are significant in fixed arches.
127. Analysis by least work (Castigliano's) or force method (flexibility method).

5.4 Cables
128. Cable: Flexible, perfectly flexible — carries only tension. Shape = funicular polygon.
129. Cable with single point load P at horizontal distance 'a' from left: H = P·a·b/(L·sag), where b = L−a.
130. Cable with UDL w: Shape = parabola. Sag d = wL²/(8H). Horizontal span L, H = wL²/8d.
131. Maximum cable tension: T_max = √(H² + V_max²).
132. Length of parabolic cable (approximate): S ≈ L[1 + (8d²)/(3L²)] for small sag.
133. Cable with self-weight only: Shape = catenary y = a·cosh(x/a), where a = H/w.
134. Temperature effects: Rise ΔT → cable sag increases (expands, sag ↑, tension ↓).

5.5 Suspension Bridges

135. Main cable (parabolic) carries vertical loads. Hangers transfer deck loads to cable.
136. Stiffening girder distributes live loads — reduces local distortion of cable profile.
137. Critical loading: Half-span loading causes greatest bending in stiffening girder.
138. Cable stays (as in cable-stayed bridge): Fan, harp, semi-fan arrangements. High structural efficiency.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. Horizontal thrust developed in a three-hinged parabolic arch of span L, rise h, carrying UDL w
per unit length is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) wL²/4h C) wL²/16h
✔ B) wL²/8h D) wL/4h

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 15

 Ans: B | Explanation: Three-hinged parabolic arch + UDL w: H = wL²/8h. (Same form as SSB max BM = wL²/8
divided by rise h). This thrust makes arches efficient in compression. BM at any section = free BM − H×y = 0 for
parabolic arch under UDL.

Q2. A parabolic three-hinged arch under UDL has bending moment at every section equal to: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) wL²/8 ✔ C) Zero (funicular arch)
B) H × y D) Free BM only
Ans: C | Explanation: Parabolic arch under UDL is the FUNICULAR arch — its shape matches the funicular
polygon of the load. BM = Free BM − H×y = 0 everywhere. Only axial (compressive) forces act. This is why arches
are efficient for distributed loads.

Q3. A cable supporting a UDL over its horizontal span takes the shape of a: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Catenary ✔ C) Parabola
B) Circle D) Ellipse
Ans: C | Explanation: Cable under UDL on horizontal projection (as in suspension bridges): Takes parabolic
shape. Cable under its own self-weight (w per unit arc length): Takes catenary shape (y = a·cosh(x/a)). For small
sag, catenary ≈ parabola.

Q4. In a cable with span L and central sag d under UDL w, the horizontal tension H is: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) wL/8d C) wL²/4d
✔ B) wL²/8d D) wdL²/8
Ans: B | Explanation: Cable sag-span relationship: H = wL²/(8d), where w = UDL, L = span, d = sag at mid-span.
This can be rearranged as: d = wL²/(8H). Smaller sag → larger horizontal tension. Large-sag cables have smaller
tension but larger vertical component.

Q5. The main structural difference between a two-hinged arch and a three-hinged arch is: ★
IMPORTANT
A) Three-hinged is more rigid C) Two-hinged carries more load
✔ B) Two-hinged is statically indeterminate D) Three-hinged arch is always parabolic
(DSI=1); three-hinged is determinate
Ans: B | Explanation: Two-hinged arch: Hinges at supports only → 4 unknowns (H, VA, VB, HB but HA=HB=H)
→ 3 equations → DSI = 1. Three-hinged arch: Additional crown hinge → extra condition (Mc=0) → DSI = 0
(determinate). Three-hinged insensitive to temperature/settlement.

Q6. A cable supports a single concentrated load P at its midpoint. The horizontal thrust H if sag is
d and span is L is: ★ IMPORTANT
A) PL/2d C) PL/8d
✔ B) PL/4d D) Pd/L
Ans: B | Explanation: Cable + central point load P, sag d: H = PL/4d. The cable forms a triangle with equal
angles on both sides (symmetric). Vertical reaction at each support = P/2. Tan θ = (P/2)/H = 2d/L → H = PL/4d.

Q7. Temperature rise in a two-hinged arch causes the horizontal thrust to: ★ ADVANCED
A) Decrease C) Remain unchanged
✔ B) Increase D) Become zero
Ans: B | Explanation: In a two-hinged arch, temperature RISE → rib tends to expand → but abutments restrain
horizontal movement → additional compressive horizontal thrust develops. This is a key concern in arch bridge
design — temperature effects can be significant.

Q8. The shape of a suspension bridge main cable (neglecting cable self-weight, uniform deck load
only) is: ★ IMPORTANT
A) Catenary C) Circular arc
✔ B) Parabola D) Hyperbola
Ans: B | Explanation: Suspension bridge with closely spaced hangers transferring uniform deck load to cable:
The load per unit horizontal length is approximately constant → cable takes parabolic shape. If cable self-weight only
(no deck): catenary shape.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 16

 UNIT 6: INFLUENCE LINES
THEORY NOTES

6.1 Definition and Purpose

139. Influence Line (IL): A graph showing how a specific structural response (SF, BM, reaction, deflection) at a
FIXED point varies as a UNIT LOAD moves across the span.
140. X-axis: Position of moving load. Y-axis: Value of response at fixed section.
141. Purpose: To determine maximum response due to any moving load or load pattern.
142. Müller-Breslau Principle: IL for any response is the same as the DEFLECTED SHAPE obtained by removing
the constraint corresponding to that response and imposing a unit displacement/rotation.

6.2 ILDs for Simply Supported Beams

143. IL for RA: Triangle, max = 1 at A, zero at B. Ordinate at distance x from A = (L−x)/L.
144. IL for RB: Triangle, max = 1 at B, zero at A. Ordinate at x from A = x/L.
145. IL for SF at section C (distance 'a' from A): Two triangles — positive region 0 to C, negative region C to L.
Max positive = b/L (when load at just right of C); Max negative = −a/L (when load at just left of C).
146. IL for BM at section C: Triangle with max at C = ab/L (where a = AC, b = CB). Ordinate at x (x ≤ a): bx/L; at x
(x ≥ a): a(L−x)/L.

6.3 Loading for Maximum Effects

147. To find max positive BM at a section: Load the span where IL ordinate is positive.
148. To find max negative BM: Load where IL ordinate is negative.
149. For maximum SF at section: Load the positive area with all loads, exclude negative area.
150. For a set of moving wheel loads: Absolute maximum BM in beam occurs under wheel where the resultant of
all loads and that wheel are equidistant from mid-span (Absolute Maximum BM criterion).

6.4 ILDs for Indeterminate Structures

151. Müller-Breslau principle applies to both determinate and indeterminate structures.
152. For indeterminate structures, the deflected shape is curved (not straight lines as in determinate).
153. Qualitative ILDs using M-B principle: Identify nature of response (positive/negative regions) without exact
ordinates.
154. Quantitative ILDs for indeterminate structures: Requires force method or matrix methods.

6.5 Absolute Maximum BM and SF

155. Absolute max BM in SSB under single moving load P: PL/4 at mid-span (load at centre).
156. Absolute max BM under system of moving loads: Not always at mid-span — use equal-distance-from-
midspan criterion.
157. Maximum SF in SSB: Always at a support when load is directly over that support = max reaction.
158. Influence line for a continuous beam: Requires solving indeterminate structure for each unit load position.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. An influence line diagram (ILD) represents: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED

A) Variation of load over the span C) Deflected shape of the beam under full
loading
✔ B) Variation of a structural response at a D) Bending moment diagram for moving loads
FIXED SECTION as a unit load moves over
the span

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 17

 Ans: B | Explanation: ILD: X-axis = position of unit moving load; Y-axis = structural response (SF, BM, reaction)
at a SPECIFIC FIXED POINT. Used to determine maximum values under any pattern of moving loads by multiplying
IL ordinates by actual loads.

Q2. The maximum ordinate of IL for bending moment at section C in a SSB (AC = a, CB = b, L =
a+b) is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) a+b C) a/L
✔ B) ab/L D) b/L
Ans: B | Explanation: Max IL ordinate for BM at C = ab/L. This occurs when the unit load is AT section C. The IL
is triangular with zero at both supports and peak = ab/L at C. For central section (a=b=L/2): max = L/4 = same as
SSB central load BM = PL/4 for P=1.

Q3. Müller-Breslau principle states that the IL for a response is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Equal to the BMD under full loading C) Always triangular for all structures
✔ B) The deflected shape when D) Same as the elastic curve
corresponding constraint is removed and
unit displacement applied
Ans: B | Explanation: Müller-Breslau (M-B) Principle: ILD for any response = deflected shape of the structure
obtained by removing the constraint corresponding to that response and giving unit displacement/rotation. Applies to
determinate AND indeterminate structures — gives qualitative (shape) and quantitative (with scaling) ILDs.

Q4. The IL for shear force just to the right of left support A in a SSB has a maximum ordinate of: ★
IMPORTANT
A) 0 C) −1
✔ B) 1 D) L/4
Ans: B | Explanation: IL for SF at right of A (essentially = IL for RA): Max ordinate = 1 at A (load directly at A →
entire load goes to A → SF = 1). At B, ordinate = 0. The IL for reaction RA is identical to IL for SF just to the right of
A.

Q5. To find the maximum positive bending moment at a section using the ILD, one should: ★
IMPORTANT
A) Load the entire span ✔ C) Place loads only where IL ordinates are
positive
B) Place loads only in negative IL ordinate D) Place load at mid-span only
regions
Ans: C | Explanation: Maximum positive BM at a section = Σ(Load × positive IL ordinate). For UDL: Max positive
BM = w × (positive area of IL). Load only the positive regions to maximize positive BM. Negative regions would
reduce the positive BM.

Q6. The ILD for bending moment at the fixed end of a cantilever (under a moving unit load) has
maximum value of: ★ IMPORTANT
A) 0 ✔ C) L (when load at free end)
B) L/4 D) L/2
Ans: C | Explanation: IL for fixed-end BM of cantilever: When unit load at distance x from fixed end, BM at fixed =
x (hogging). Maximum when load at free end: max IL ordinate = L. IL is a straight line from 0 (at fixed end) to L (at
free end).

Q7. The absolute maximum bending moment in a simply supported beam of span L under a single
moving concentrated load P occurs: ★ IMPORTANT
A) When load is near the support C) At 1/3 span
✔ B) At mid-span when load is at mid-span, D) At the support
magnitude = PL/4
Ans: B | Explanation: Absolute max BM in SSB under single moving load P: Max BM = PL/4 at mid-span when
load is AT mid-span. (From IL: max ordinate for mid-span BM = L/4, occurs when load at mid-span.) For multiple
wheels, the criterion is different.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 18

 UNIT 7: ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
THEORY NOTES

7.1 Force Method (Flexibility/Compatibility Method)

159. Also called: Method of Consistent Deformations / Compatibility Method / Force Method.
160. Procedure: (1) Select redundants, (2) Release redundants → primary structure, (3) Find deflection in primary
structure due to applied loads (Δ), (4) Find deflection due to unit redundant (δ), (5) Compatibility: Δ + δ × X = 0
→ X = −Δ/δ.
161. Flexibility coefficient f_ij = displacement at i due to unit force at j.
162. Matrix form: [F]{X} = −{D₀}, where [F] = flexibility matrix, {X} = redundants, {D₀} = deflections in released
structure.

7.2 Three-Moment Theorem (Clapeyron's Theorem)

163. For continuous beams: MA·LA + 2MB(LA + LB) + MC·LB = −6A_aā/LA − 6A_bB̄ /LB.
164. Simplified for equal spans L with UDL w: MA + 4MB + MC = −wL²/2.
165. With support settlement δB: Add 6EI(δA/LA − δB(1/LA + 1/LB) + δC/LB) to right side.
166. Allows finding moments at interior supports of continuous beams span-by-span.
167. For fixed end: Imagine additional span of zero length with infinite EI beyond.

7.3 Slope Deflection Method

168. Member end moments: MAB = 2EI/L[2θA + θB − 3ψ] + FEMAB; MBA = 2EI/L[θA + 2θB − 3ψ] + FEMBA.
169. ψ = relative settlement of ends / L = chord rotation.
170. FEM (Fixed End Moments) — SSB with UDL w: FEMAB = −wL²/12 (near end), FEMBA = +wL²/12 (far end).
171. FEM — central point load P: ±PL/8.
172. FEM — eccentric load Pa from near end: −Pab²/L² (near) and +Pa²b/L² (far).
173. Equilibrium equations: Joint moment equilibrium (ΣM = 0 at each joint) + shear equation for sway.
174. Solve for unknown slopes θ and sways ψ → back-substitute for member end moments.

7.4 Moment Distribution Method (Hardy Cross Method)

175. Iterative procedure for indeterminate beams and frames.
176. Stiffness factor: K = 4EI/L (far end fixed); K = 3EI/L (far end pinned).
177. Distribution Factor: DF = K / ΣK at each joint (fraction of unbalanced moment distributed to each member).
178. Carry-over factor (COF): 0.5 for far end fixed; 0 for far end pinned/free.
179. Procedure: (1) Lock all joints; apply FEMs, (2) Unlock one joint at a time — distribute unbalanced moment,
(3) Carry over half to far ends, (4) Repeat until moments converge.
180. No joint translation: Direct application. With sway: Sway analysis needed (assume unit sway → find sway
moments → superimpose).

7.5 Kani's Method (Iteration Method)

181. Rotation contribution: M'_AB = −(1/2) × (K_AB/ΣK) × (ΣM'_near − FEM near/2).
182. More compact than moment distribution for multi-story frames.
183. Single cycle often gives very good approximation.
184. Standard in many Indian university syllabi (GATE, state PSC exams).

7.6 Matrix Stiffness Method

185. Global stiffness equation: {F} = [K]{d}, where {F} = force vector, [K] = global stiffness matrix, {d} =
displacement vector.
186. Member stiffness matrix for beam element (2-node, 4 DOF): 4×4 matrix relating end forces/moments to end
displacements/rotations.
187. Boundary conditions: Known displacements (supports) → partition matrix → solve for unknown
displacements → back-calculate forces.
Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 19
 188. Advantages: Systematic, computer-implementable, handles complex structures. Forms basis of FEM.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. In the Force Method, the compatibility equation is used to find: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Member stiffness C) The deflection at free end
✔ B) The magnitude of redundant D) The natural frequency
forces/moments by applying displacement
compatibility conditions
Ans: B | Explanation: Force Method (Flexibility Method): Removes redundants → primary structure. Compatibility
equation: deflection in primary under loads + deflection from redundant = actual displacement condition (e.g., zero at
a support). Solves for unknown redundant forces/moments.

Q2. Distribution factor (DF) in Moment Distribution Method is calculated as: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) K × ΣK C) ΣK / K
✔ B) K / ΣK (stiffness of member / sum of all D) EI / L²
stiffnesses at joint)
Ans: B | Explanation: DF = K / ΣK, where K = stiffness of the member = 4EI/L (fixed far end) or 3EI/L (pinned far
end). At any joint, ΣDF = 1.0. This represents the fraction of unbalanced moment that each member absorbs when
the joint is unlocked.

Q3. The carry-over factor in Moment Distribution Method for a member with fixed far end is: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 1.0 C) 0.25
✔ B) 0.5 D) 0
Ans: B | Explanation: Carry-over factor (COF) = 0.5 for far end FIXED. When a moment M is distributed at near
end, a moment of 0.5M is transferred (carried over) to the far end. COF = 0 for pinned far end (no moment carried to
pin). COF = 0 for free end.

Q4. The fixed end moment for a beam of span L with UDL w (near end A, far end B) using slope
deflection convention is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) FEMAB = +wL²/12 (hogging) C) FEMAB = −wL²/8
✔ B) FEMAB = −wL²/12 (near end, hogging) D) FEMAB = +wL²/8
Ans: B | Explanation: FEM for fixed-fixed beam with UDL w: Near end (A): FEMAB = −wL²/12
(anti-clockwise/hogging per SDM convention). Far end (B): FEMBA = +wL²/12. For central point load P: FEM =
±PL/8. Sign convention: clockwise positive in SDM.

Q5. In Slope Deflection Method, sway is accounted for by the chord rotation ψ which equals: ★
IMPORTANT
A) Relative rotation between member ends C) Sum of joint rotations at both ends
✔ B) Relative transverse settlement of far end D) Deflection at mid-span / span
w.r.t. near end / span length
Ans: B | Explanation: Chord rotation ψ = Δ/L, where Δ = relative sidesway (settlement) of far end w.r.t. near end
perpendicular to member axis, L = member length. In sway frames (lateral displacement), ψ ≠ 0. For non-sway
frames, ψ = 0 (simplifies equations significantly).

Q6. Stiffness of a beam member in Moment Distribution Method when the far end is pinned (simply
supported) is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 4EI/L C) 2EI/L
✔ B) 3EI/L D) EI/L
Ans: B | Explanation: Modified stiffness: K = 3EI/L when far end is PINNED (no COF, no moment at far end). K =
4EI/L when far end is FIXED. Using 3EI/L for pin-end members simplifies MDM — no carry-over to that end, so only
one cycle of distribution needed for that member.

Q7. The Three-Moment Theorem is applicable for analysis of: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Single span beams only C) Portal frames only

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 20

 ✔ B) Continuous beams with multiple spans D) Trusses
Ans: B | Explanation: Three-Moment Theorem (Clapeyron) applies to CONTINUOUS BEAMS — relates
moments at THREE consecutive supports (MA, MB, MC) considering spans LA and LB. Applied span by span from
left to right, with boundary conditions at ends (simple support M = 0, fixed end ≠ 0).

Q8. In Moment Distribution Method, the sum of Distribution Factors at any joint must always equal:
★ BASIC
A) 0 ✔ C) 1.0
B) 0.5 D) 2.0
Ans: C | Explanation: ΣDF at any joint = Σ(K_i / ΣK) = ΣK / ΣK = 1.0. This ensures equilibrium — 100% of the
unbalanced moment at a joint is distributed among all connecting members (no moment is 'lost').

Q9. The stiffness matrix [K] in matrix stiffness method relates: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Stresses to strains C) Moments to curvatures
✔ B) Nodal forces to nodal displacements: D) Loads to reactions only
{F} = [K]{d}
Ans: B | Explanation: Matrix stiffness method: {F} = [K]{d} — global force vector = global stiffness matrix ×
displacement vector. [K] is symmetric, positive semi-definite. Assembled from member stiffness matrices using direct
stiffness method. Basis of all finite element software.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 21

 UNIT 8: RCC DESIGN — WORKING STRESS AND LIMIT
STATE METHOD
THEORY NOTES

8.1 Introduction to IS 456:2000

189. IS 456:2000: Code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete in India. Latest version: 2000 (Reaffirmed
2021).
190. Design methods: (1) Working Stress Method (WSM) — elastic, permissible stresses; (2) Ultimate Load
Method (ULM); (3) Limit State Method (LSM) — preferred, based on partial safety factors.
191. Characteristic strength: fck = concrete (28-day cube strength, 5% probability of failure below this). fy = steel
(characteristic yield/0.2% proof strength).
192. Design strength: fcd = fck/γc = fck/1.5; fyd = fy/γs = fy/1.15 (LSM partial factors).
193. Grade of concrete: M15, M20, M25, M30... (M = mix, number = fck in MPa).
194. Steel grades: Fe250 (fy=250), Fe415, Fe500, Fe550, Fe600 (IS 1786).
195. Minimum grade for RCC: M20 (per IS 456:2000 Amendment 3).

8.2 Limit State Method — Design Philosophy

196. Limit state: Condition beyond which structure becomes unfit for intended use.
197. Limit State of Collapse (ULS): Flexure, shear, torsion, compression, bond — prevent structural failure.
198. Limit State of Serviceability (SLS): Deflection (L/250), cracking (0.3mm for moderate exposure), vibration.
199. Partial Safety Factors (loads): γf = 1.5 for DL+LL; 1.2 for DL+LL+EQ; 0.9 for DL only (uplift check).
200. Partial Safety Factors (materials): γc = 1.5 (concrete); γs = 1.15 (steel).
201. Design compressive strength of concrete: 0.67 fck/1.5 = 0.446 fck ≈ 0.45 fck.
202. Design tensile strength of steel: fy/1.15 = 0.87 fy.

8.3 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams (LSM)

203. Assumptions: Plane sections remain plane. Max concrete strain at top = 0.0035. Tensile concrete ignored.
Stress block: rectangular-parabolic (simplified rectangular block xu wide, 0.36fck compression).
204. Depth of neutral axis xu: 0.87fy·Ast = 0.36fck·b·xu → xu = 0.87fy·Ast / (0.36fck·b).
205. Limiting neutral axis xu,max/d: Fe250: 0.53; Fe415: 0.48; Fe500: 0.46.
206. Moment of resistance (under-reinforced): Mu = 0.87fy·Ast·(d − 0.42xu) = 0.87fy·Ast·z.
207. Balanced section (Mu,lim): Mu,lim = 0.36·fck·b·xu,max·(d − 0.42·xu,max).
208. Mu,lim formulae: Fe415: Mu,lim = 0.138 fck b d². Fe250: Mu,lim = 0.148 fck b d². Fe500: Mu,lim = 0.133 fck b
d².

8.4 Doubly Reinforced Beams

209. Used when Mu > Mu,lim (moment exceeds capacity of singly reinforced balanced section) or depth is
restricted.
210. Additional compression steel Asc placed near top face.
211. Total Mu = Mu,lim + Mu2, where Mu2 = (fsc − fcc) × Asc × (d − d').
212. fsc = stress in compression steel (from strain compatibility); fcc = 0.446 fck (concrete stress at Asc level).
213. Additional tension steel Ast2 = Mu2 / (0.87fy × (d − d')).
214. Total Ast = Ast1 + Ast2 (Ast1 for balanced section).

8.5 Shear in RCC Beams

215. Design shear stress: τv = Vu/(b×d). Compare with τc (permissible shear stress from IS 456 Table 19).
216. τc depends on: (a) grade of concrete, (b) percentage of tensile steel (Ast/bd × 100).
217. If τv > τc: Design shear reinforcement (stirrups).
218. Spacing of vertical stirrups (2-legged): Sv = 0.87fy × Asv × d / (Vu − τc × b × d).
219. Minimum shear reinforcement: Asv/bSv ≥ 0.4/(0.87fy).
220. Maximum stirrup spacing: 0.75d or 300mm (whichever is less) for vertical stirrups.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 22

 221. τc,max from IS 456 Table 20 — if τv > τc,max: Revise section (increase b or d).

8.6 Bond, Anchorage and Development Length

222. Bond stress: τbd = Vu / (Σo × ld), where Σo = sum of perimeters, ld = development length.
223. Development length: Ld = (ϕ × σs) / (4 × τbd) = ϕ × 0.87fy / (4 × τbd).
224. IS 456 τbd values (for M20): 1.2 N/mm² (plain bars); 1.6 × 1.2 = 1.92 N/mm² (deformed/HYSD bars).
225. Ld for Fe415, M20 bars (deformed): Ld ≈ 47ϕ (approximately).
226. Hook provides equivalent anchorage: Standard 90° hook = 8ϕ extra; 45° bend hook — additional
development length.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. As per IS 456:2000, the partial safety factor for concrete (γc) in Limit State Method is: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 1.0 ✔ C) 1.5
B) 1.15 D) 2.0
Ans: C | Explanation: IS 456:2000 LSM: γc = 1.5 for concrete; γs = 1.15 for steel. Design concrete strength =
fck/1.5. Design steel strength = fy/1.15 = 0.87fy. Higher partial factor for concrete reflects greater variability and
brittleness compared to steel.

Q2. The minimum grade of concrete recommended for RCC work as per IS 456:2000 (Amendment
3) is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) M10 ✔ C) M20
B) M15 D) M25
Ans: C | Explanation: IS 456:2000 (Amendment 3, 2005): Minimum concrete grade for RCC = M20. Earlier it was
M15. For pre-stressed concrete: M30 minimum. For moderate exposure: M25. For severe/very severe exposure:
M30/M35.

Q3. The limiting value of xu/d for Fe415 steel as per IS 456:2000 is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 0.53 C) 0.46
✔ B) 0.48 D) 0.42
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 456 limiting xu/d: Fe250 → 0.53; Fe415 → 0.48; Fe500 → 0.46. These limits ensure that
steel yields before concrete crushes (ductile failure). If actual xu/d > limiting value → over-reinforced → brittle failure
(not allowed).

Q4. Mu,lim for a singly reinforced beam section with Fe415 and M20 concrete (in terms of b and d)
is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 0.149 fck b d² C) 0.133 fck b d²
✔ B) 0.138 fck b d² D) 0.125 fck b d²
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 456 Mu,lim: Fe250: 0.148 fck bd²; Fe415: 0.138 fck bd²; Fe500: 0.133 fck bd². For M20
b=300, d=450, Fe415: Mu,lim = 0.138×20×300×450² = 167.9 kNm. Used to check if doubly reinforced section is
needed.

Q5. The design tensile strength of steel (0.87 fy) comes from dividing fy by: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) γs = 1.0 C) γs = 1.5
✔ B) γs = 1.15 D) γs = 2.0
Ans: B | Explanation: 0.87fy = fy / 1.15 = fy / γs. Partial safety factor for steel γs = 1.15. For concrete: fck/γc =
fck/1.5 = 0.667fck. At ULS, the factored compressive stress in rectangular stress block = 0.36fck (= 0.446fck × 0.8
approx). At neutral axis level: strain = 0.0035.

Q6. Maximum strain at extreme compression fibre of concrete in flexure per IS 456 is: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 0.002 ✔ C) 0.0035
B) 0.003 D) 0.005

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 23

 Ans: C | Explanation: IS 456 assumption: Maximum strain at extreme concrete compression fibre = 0.0035 (for
pure bending). For axially loaded columns in pure compression: 0.002. For combined bending + compression: strain
varies between 0.002 and 0.0035. This is based on tests and set by IS 456:2000 Clause 38.1.

Q7. Development length (Ld) for Fe415 steel HYSD bars in M20 concrete is approximately: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 35ϕ C) 55ϕ
✔ B) 47ϕ D) 60ϕ
Ans: B | Explanation: Ld = 0.87fy × ϕ / (4 × τbd). For Fe415 (fy=415), M20 (τbd=1.2×1.6=1.92 N/mm²): Ld =
0.87×415×ϕ / (4×1.92) = 361.05/(7.68) = 47ϕ. HYSD factor 1.6 applied to τbd for deformed bars.

Q8. Maximum spacing of vertical stirrups in an RCC beam as per IS 456 is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) d or 300 mm C) 0.5d or 200 mm
✔ B) 0.75d or 300 mm (whichever is less) D) 1.5d or 450 mm
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 456 Clause [Link]: Maximum stirrup spacing = 0.75 × effective depth (d) or 300 mm,
WHICHEVER IS LESS. For inclined stirrups at 45°: 1.0d or 300 mm. Minimum shear reinforcement must be
provided even if τv < τc.

Q9. In LSM, the factored load combination for Dead Load (DL) + Live Load (LL) is: ★ PREVIOUSLY
ASKED
A) 1.0 DL + 1.0 LL ✔ C) 1.5 DL + 1.5 LL = 1.5(DL+LL)
B) 1.2 DL + 1.6 LL D) 1.2 DL + 1.2 LL
Ans: C | Explanation: IS 456 load factors (LSM): (1) 1.5(DL+LL) — basic combination; (2) 1.2(DL+LL+EQ/Wind);
(3) 1.5(DL+EQ) or 0.9DL+1.5EQ (uplift). The factor 1.5 accounts for overload, model uncertainties, and
consequences of failure.

Q10. A doubly reinforced beam is preferred when: ★ IMPORTANT

A) Span is very short C) Concrete strength is high
✔ B) Applied moment exceeds Mu,lim of the D) Only compression loads are present
balanced singly reinforced section
Ans: B | Explanation: Doubly reinforced beams: When Mu > Mu,lim AND section dimensions cannot be
increased (architectural/headroom constraints). Compression steel enhances moment capacity, reduces long-term
creep deflection, improves ductility. Also used for reversible moments (earthquake design).

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 24

 UNIT 9: COLUMNS — RCC DESIGN
THEORY NOTES

9.1 Classification of Columns

227. Short column: lex/D ≤ 12 (for rectangular) or le/D ≤ 12 (for circular). Failure by crushing/yielding.
228. Slender (Long) column: lex/D > 12 or ley/b > 12. Failure by buckling + crushing (second-order effects).
Additional moment required.
229. Effective length le: Depends on end conditions. Pin-pin = L; fixed-fixed = 0.5L; fixed-pin = 0.7L; fixed-free =
2L; fixed-roller = L (theoretical).
230. IS 456 Table 28: Effective length multipliers for columns in frames.
231. Minimum eccentricity: emin = max(L/500 + D/30, 20mm).

9.2 Short Column Design (IS 456)

232. Axially loaded short column: Pu = 0.4 fck Ac + 0.67 fy Asc, where Ac = net concrete area = Ag − Asc.
233. OR: Pu = 0.4 fck Ag + (0.67fy − 0.4fck) Asc.
234. Minimum steel: 0.8% Ag (to provide minimum moment resistance).
235. Maximum steel: 6% Ag (for practical construction). For lap splice zones: 4% Ag.
236. Lateral ties (IS 456 Clause 26.5.3): Tie diameter ≥ ϕ_main/4 or 5mm (whichever is greater). Tie spacing ≤
min(300mm, 16ϕ_main, least dimension of column).
237. Helical reinforcement (spiral column): Enhanced ductility and strength. Pu = 1.05 × (0.4fck Ag + 0.67fy Asc).
The factor 1.05 accounts for confinement.

9.3 Eccentrically Loaded Columns

238. Loading at eccentricity e = M/P from centroidal axis. Must satisfy: Pu + Mu combination on P-M interaction
diagram.
239. P-M interaction diagram (SP:16): Shows combination of axial load and moment capacity. Points: Pure
compression → balanced point → pure bending.
240. Biaxial bending: (Mux/Mux1)ᵅ + (Muy/Muy1)ᵅ ≤ 1.0, where α = 1 to 2 (IS 456 Clause 39.6).
241. Additional moment in slender columns: Madd = Pu × eₐ, where eₐ = D(le/D)²/2000.

9.4 Euler's Buckling Load

242. Euler's critical load: Pcr = π²EI/Le², where Le = effective length.
243. Critical stress: fcr = π²E/(Le/r)², r = radius of gyration = √(I/A).
244. Slenderness ratio: Le/r. For steel columns: Le/r ≤ 180 (IS 800).
245. Euler's theory: Valid only for perfectly straight, axially loaded, homogeneous, elastic columns.
246. Rankine-Gordon formula: Accounts for both short column crushing AND Euler buckling.
247. 1/P = 1/Pc + 1/Pe, where Pc = crushing load, Pe = Euler load.
248. Pcr = fcr × A / (1 + a(Le/k)²), where a = Rankine constant = fcr/π²E.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. A column is classified as 'short' when effective length/least lateral dimension (le/D) is less
than: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 10 C) 15
✔ B) 12 D) 20
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 456: Column is short if lex/Dx ≤ 12 AND ley/Dy ≤ 12 (both conditions). If either ratio > 12
→ slender column (second-order effects significant). Slender columns need additional moment = Pu × eadd in
design.

Q2. Ultimate load capacity of a short axially loaded RCC column (IS 456) is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Pu = 0.45fck Ac + 0.75fy Asc C) Pu = fck Ac + fy Asc
Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 25
 ✔ B) Pu = 0.4fck Ac + 0.67fy Asc D) Pu = 0.36fck Ac + 0.87fy Asc
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 456 Clause 39.3: Pu = 0.4fck Ac + 0.67fy Asc (short column, concentric load). Where Ac
= Ag − Asc. Factor 0.4 for concrete accounts for γc=1.5 and partial area (0.67/1.5 ≈ 0.44 ≈ 0.4 rounded). 0.67fy
accounts for γs and partial strength.

Q3. Minimum longitudinal reinforcement in an RCC column as per IS 456 is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 0.4% of gross cross-sectional area C) 1.0% of gross area
✔ B) 0.8% of gross cross-sectional area D) 2.0% of gross area
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 456 Clause 26.5.3: Min steel = 0.8% Ag (to ensure minimum moment resistance, creep
and shrinkage control, structural integrity). Max steel = 6% Ag normally. At lap splices = 4% Ag max (practical limit
for concrete placement).

Q4. Euler's critical buckling load for a column with both ends pinned and length L is: ★ PREVIOUSLY
ASKED
✔ A) π²EI/L² C) 4π²EI/L²
B) π²EI/4L² D) π²EI/2L²
Ans: A | Explanation: Euler's load: Pcr = π²EI/Le² with Le = effective length. Pin-pin: Le = L → Pcr = π²EI/L².
Fixed-fixed: Le = L/2 → Pcr = 4π²EI/L² (4× pin-pin). Fixed-free: Le = 2L → Pcr = π²EI/4L² (1/4 of pin-pin). Fixed-pin:
Le = 0.7L → Pcr ≈ 2π²EI/L².

Q5. For a fixed-free (flagpole) column of length L, the effective length for Euler buckling is: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 0.5L C) L
B) 0.7L ✔ D) 2L
Ans: D | Explanation: Effective length (Le): Pin-pin = L; Fixed-free = 2L (cantilever column); Fixed-pin = 0.7L;
Fixed-fixed = 0.5L. Buckling load ∝ 1/Le². Fixed-free column buckles at 1/4 the load of equivalent pin-pin column.
Critical for free-standing poles, unbraced columns.

Q6. Maximum spacing of lateral ties in an RCC column (IS 456) is the LEAST of: ★ PREVIOUSLY
ASKED
A) L/4 or b or 250 mm C) 450 mm, 20× main bar dia
✔ B) 300 mm, 16× main bar dia, least column D) 600 mm only
dimension
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 456 Clause [Link] (Lateral ties): Pitch (spacing) ≤ LEAST of: (1) 300 mm, (2) 16 ×
diameter of main bars, (3) least lateral dimension of column. Diameter of tie: ≥ ϕ_main/4 or 5mm. Purpose: Prevent
buckling of main bars between ties.

Q7. Minimum eccentricity to be considered in column design as per IS 456 is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) max(L/600, 10mm) C) 0.05D always
✔ B) max(L/500 + D/30, 20mm) D) max(L/300, 15mm)
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 456 Clause 25.4: Minimum eccentricity emin = greater of (L/500 + D/30) or 20mm.
Where L = unsupported length, D = lateral dimension. Applied in both principal directions. If eccentricity < 0.05D: use
Pu = 0.4fck Ac + 0.67fy Asc (axially loaded formula).

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 26

 UNIT 10: SLABS — RCC DESIGN
THEORY NOTES

10.1 Types of Slabs

249. One-way slab: Shorter span / Longer span (Ly/Lx) > 2. Load carried predominantly in shorter direction.
Design as beam of unit width (1m strip).
250. Two-way slab: Ly/Lx ≤ 2. Load carried in BOTH directions. Design using IS 456 (Pigeaud's method or BM
coefficients).
251. Flat slab: Directly supported on columns (no beams). Large load capacity, good headroom. Risk of punching
shear around columns.
252. Flat plate: Flat slab without drop panels or column capitals — simplest but lowest capacity.
253. Waffle slab (ribbed): Two-way ribbed system — reduces dead weight, used for long spans.
254. Pre-stressed slab: Pre-tensioned or post-tensioned for large spans (10-20m+).

10.2 One-Way Slab Design (IS 456)

255. Thickness: Effective depth d = L/basic ratio × modification factor. Basic span/d ratios: SSB = 20, Cantilever =
7, Continuous = 26 (for simply supported one-way).
256. Minimum thickness: 100mm (IS 456). Practical: 120-150mm for floors.
257. Main reinforcement: Designed for Mu (along shorter span). Min Ast = 0.12%bD for Fe415 (or 0.15% for
Fe250).
258. Distribution steel: Min 0.12% bD (perpendicular to main), spacing ≤ 5d or 450mm.
259. Clear cover: 20mm for moderate exposure (slabs).

10.3 Two-Way Slab Design (IS 456:2000 Annex D)

260. BM coefficients: Mx = αx w lx²; My = αy w lx², where αx, αy from IS 456 Table 27 (depends on support
conditions and ly/lx ratio).
261. Types of panels: Type 1 (4 sides discontinuous) to Type 9 (various combinations of continuous/discontinuous
edges).
262. Corner torsion reinforcement: Required at corners where two discontinuous edges meet.
263. Two-way reinforcement designed independently in x and y directions using respective moments.

10.4 Flat Slab Design — Punching Shear

264. Critical perimeter for punching shear: b₀ = perimeter at d/2 from column face.
265. Design punching shear stress: τv = Vu / (b₀ × d).
266. Permissible punching shear stress: τc = 0.25√fck (IS 456).
267. If τv > τc: Provide shear reinforcement (studs, shearhead) or increase d.
268. Drop panels/Column capitals: Increase effective depth at column → reduce punching shear.

10.5 Yield Line Theory (Johansen's)

269. Ultimate load analysis for slabs: Slabs fail by development of yield lines (fracture lines where maximum
moment occurs).
270. Virtual work method: Work by external loads = work done by moments along yield lines.
271. Gives upper bound (unsafe) estimate — must check all possible yield line patterns.
272. For square two-way simply supported slab (side a) with UDL w: wu = 24m/a² (approximately, where m =
moment capacity).
273. Fan mechanism for concentrated loads — used in slab bridge design.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. A slab is designed as a one-way slab when the ratio of longer to shorter span (Ly/Lx) exceeds:
★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 27
 A) 1.0 ✔ C) 2.0
B) 1.5 D) 3.0
Ans: C | Explanation: IS 456: Ly/Lx > 2 → one-way slab (load carried mainly in shorter direction by flexure). Ly/Lx
≤ 2 → two-way slab (both directions carry load). In a one-way slab, main steel runs in shorter direction; distribution
steel in longer direction.

Q2. Minimum area of main reinforcement in a one-way slab with Fe415 steel as per IS 456 is: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 0.08% of bD C) 0.15% of bD
✔ B) 0.12% of bD D) 0.20% of bD
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 456 Clause 26.5.2: Minimum Ast = 0.12% bD for HYSD bars (Fe415, Fe500). Minimum
Ast = 0.15% bD for mild steel (Fe250). This ensures minimum moment resistance, temperature/shrinkage crack
control, and structural integrity.

Q3. The basic span-to-effective depth ratio for a simply supported one-way slab as per IS 456 is: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 7 ✔ C) 20
B) 15 D) 26
Ans: C | Explanation: IS 456 basic span/d ratios: Simply supported → 20; Continuous → 26; Cantilever → 7.
These are modified by factors for: steel stress (tension), compression steel, T-beam flange, span > 10m. Control
deflection by keeping l/d ≤ modified ratio.

Q4. Distribution steel in a one-way slab is provided in the direction: ★ BASIC

A) Same as main reinforcement C) Diagonal
✔ B) Perpendicular to main reinforcement D) No distribution steel needed
(along longer span)
Ans: B | Explanation: In one-way slab: Main steel = short direction (designed for Mu). Distribution/secondary
steel = long direction (perpendicular). Purpose of distribution steel: Distribute loads transversely, control
temperature/shrinkage cracking, hold main steel in position. Min = 0.12% bD.

Q5. Punching shear in flat slabs is checked on a critical perimeter at a distance of ___ from the
column face: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) d from column face C) 2d from column face
✔ B) d/2 from column face D) d/4 from column face
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 456 for punching shear in flat slabs: Critical perimeter b₀ is at d/2 from column face (45°
failure plane). Vu/(b₀×d) ≤ 0.25√fck. If excessive: Add shear reinforcement, drop panels (locally increased slab
thickness), or column capitals.

Q6. Yield line theory for slab analysis gives a ___bound solution: ★ IMPORTANT
A) Lower bound (safe side) C) Exact solution
✔ B) Upper bound (unsafe side) D) Lower bound for concentrated loads, upper
for UDL
Ans: B | Explanation: Yield line analysis (Johansen's) is a MECHANISM method (virtual work/upper bound
theorem of plasticity). It gives an UPPER BOUND to the collapse load — meaning the actual collapse load ≤
calculated value. Must check all possible yield line patterns (minimize the capacity estimate for safety).

Q7. For a two-way simply supported rectangular slab (Ly/Lx = 1.5), bending moments are given by
Mx = αx w lx². The value αx is obtained from: ★ IMPORTANT
A) Johansen's yield line equations C) Direct calculation from statics
✔ B) IS 456 Annex D Table 27 (based on D) Grillage analogy only
Ly/Lx ratio and support conditions)
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 456 Annex D: For two-way restrained/unrestrained slabs, bending moment coefficients
αx, αy are given in Table 27 for 9 types of panels and various Ly/Lx ratios. Mx = αx×w×lx² and My = αy×w×lx². These
are based on elastic theory solutions.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 28

 UNIT 11: FOOTING DESIGN — IS 456
THEORY NOTES

11.1 Types of Foundations

274. Shallow foundations: Depth/Width < 1 (Terzaghi). Types: Isolated (pad), combined, strip, raft (mat).
275. Deep foundations: Pile, caisson, pier — when shallow foundation inadequate (weak soil, heavy loads,
adjacent structures).
276. Isolated footing: Single column supported on a pad. Rectangular or square plan.
277. Combined footing: Two or more columns on same footing (adjacent to boundary or close columns).
278. Raft/Mat foundation: Entire building on one large slab — when soil bearing capacity low.

11.2 Isolated Footing Design (IS 456:2000)

279. Steps: (1) Find safe bearing capacity (SBC), (2) Determine footing plan area = P_total / SBC, (3) Calculate
net upward pressure qu = Pu / Area (factored), (4) Check bending at critical section (face of column), (5) Check
one-way shear (at d from column face), (6) Check two-way (punching) shear (at d/2 from column face), (7)
Design for bending and provide reinforcement.
280. Critical section for bending (RCC footing): At face of column. Mu = qu × B × (L-c)/2 × (L-c)/4, where c =
column dimension, B = footing width.
281. Critical section for one-way shear: At d from face of column.
282. Critical section for punching shear: At d/2 from all faces of column (perimeter = 4(c+d)).
283. Depth based on punching shear: Most critical check — governs footing thickness.

11.3 Bearing Capacity of Soil

284. Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation: qu = c Nc + q Nq + 0.5 γ B Nγ.
285. c = cohesion, q = overburden pressure (γDf), γ = unit weight, B = footing width, Nc, Nq, Nγ = bearing capacity
factors (function of ϕ).
286. For pure clay (ϕ=0): qu = 5.14c + q (Nq=1, Nγ=0). Safe bearing capacity = qu/3 + q (FS=3 on net).
287. For sand (c=0): qu = q Nq + 0.5 γ B Nγ.
288. Safe bearing capacity (SBC) = (qu − q) / FS + q, where FS = 2.5 to 3.

11.4 Pile Foundations

289. Load transfer: (a) End bearing piles (in hard rock/dense layer), (b) Friction/cohesion piles (in soft clay), (c)
Combination.
290. Negative skin friction: When soil settles more than pile → downward drag on pile → reduces capacity.
291. Pile group efficiency: η = Qgroup / (n × Qsingle). Group efficiency < 1 for friction piles in clay.
292. Static formula (clay): Qu = 9c Ap + α c As (end bearing + skin friction). α = adhesion factor.
293. Hiley formula (dynamic): Qu = WH × e / (s + C/2), where W = ram weight, H = drop, s = final set, C = elastic
compression.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. Critical section for bending moment in an isolated RCC footing is at: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Centre of footing ✔ C) Face of column
B) d/2 from centre D) d from face of column
Ans: C | Explanation: IS 456: Critical section for bending moment in footing = at FACE of column (for RCC
columns). For masonry columns/walls: at midway between face and centreline of wall. The cantilever projection from
column face carries the upward soil pressure and bends the footing.

Q2. The critical section for punching shear in a footing is located at: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Face of column ✔ C) d/2 from face of column
B) d from face of column D) At support
Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 29
 Ans: C | Explanation: IS 456: Punching (two-way) shear critical section = perimeter at d/2 from ALL faces of
column. For column of size c × c: Critical perimeter = 4(c + d). One-way shear: At d from column face. Punching
shear usually governs footing depth design.

Q3. Terzaghi's bearing capacity equation for a strip footing in cohesionless sand (c=0) reduces to:
★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) qu = c Nc C) qu = 5.14c + q
✔ B) qu = q Nq + 0.5 γ B Nγ D) qu = q + 0.3γBNγ
Ans: B | Explanation: Terzaghi's equation: qu = cNc + qNq + 0.5γBNγ. For c=0 (sand): qu = qNq + 0.5γBNγ,
where q = γDf (overburden), B = footing width. Note: For pure clay (ϕ=0, undrained): qu = 5.14c + q (since Nc=5.14
for ϕ=0, Nq=1, Nγ=0).

Q4. Negative skin friction in pile foundations occurs when: ★ IMPORTANT

A) Pile capacity is exceeded C) Pile is in tension
✔ B) Surrounding soil settles more than the D) Group effect reduces capacity
pile, causing downward drag force on pile
Ans: B | Explanation: Negative skin friction: When soil settles more than pile (due to consolidation, fill surcharge)
→ relative settlement of soil > pile → downward shear (drag) acts on pile → REDUCES pile capacity. Critical for
piles through soft compressible clay with fill or surcharge on surface.

Q5. For an isolated footing on soil with SBC = 150 kN/m², supporting a column load of 600 kN
(service), the minimum footing plan area required is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 2.0 m² C) 6.0 m²
✔ B) 4.0 m² D) 8.0 m²
Ans: B | Explanation: Area = Service load / SBC = 600/150 = 4.0 m². Use service (unfactored) loads for sizing
footings against soil bearing capacity. Use factored loads (1.5 × service) for structural design of footing concrete and
steel.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 30

 UNIT 12: STEEL STRUCTURES — IS 800:2007
THEORY NOTES

12.1 Introduction to IS 800:2007

294. IS 800:2007: General construction in steel — Code of Practice. Latest revision: 2007 (replaced IS 800:1984).
Now uses Limit State Method (LSM) — earlier was working stress method.
295. Steel grades: IS 2062: E250, E300, E350, E400, E450. E = yield strength in MPa. E250 is most common
structural steel.
296. Partial safety factor for steel material: γm0 = 1.10 (yielding); γm1 = 1.25 (fracture).
297. Design yield strength: fy/γm0 = fy/1.10.
298. Design ultimate strength: fu/γm1 = fu/1.25.

12.2 Tension Members

299. Modes of failure: (a) Yielding of gross cross-section, (b) Fracture of net section, (c) Block shear.
300. Tdg = Ag fy / γm0 (yielding of gross section).
301. Tdn = 0.9 An fu / γm1 (fracture of net section — critical with bolt holes).
302. Tdb = Block shear strength (IS 800 Clause 6.4.1).
303. Net area An = Ag − hole area. For staggered holes: Ag − Σ(holes) + Σ(s²/4g) (s = stagger, g = gauge).
304. Slenderness ratio of tension members: Le/r ≤ 400 (preferred); ≤ 350 for main members.

12.3 Compression Members (Columns)

305. Design compressive strength: Pd = Ae × fcd, where fcd = design compressive stress from IS 800.
306. Buckling curves (a, b, c, d): Depending on cross-section type. Hot-rolled H-sections: curve a/b. Cold-formed:
curve d.
307. Non-dimensional slenderness: λ̄ = √(fy/fcc), fcc = π²E/(KL/r)².
308. Design stress: fcd = fy/[φ + √(φ² − λ̄²)] / γm0, where φ = 0.5[1 + α(λ̄ − 0.2) + λ̄²].
309. α = imperfection factor (curve a=0.21, b=0.34, c=0.49, d=0.76).
310. Maximum slenderness ratio: ≤180 for compression members in buildings.

12.4 Beams — Flexural Design

311. Laterally supported beam: Md = βb × Zp × fy/γm0 (Zp = plastic section modulus, βb = 1 for compact section).
312. Laterally unsupported beam: Susceptible to Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB). Md = χLT × Zp × fy/γm0.
313. χLT = LTB reduction factor (depends on λ̄LT = non-dimensional LTB slenderness).
314. Section classification: Plastic, Compact, Semi-compact, Slender (based on web/flange width-to-thickness
ratios).
315. Shape factor: Zp/Ze (plastic to elastic section modulus). For rectangular: 1.5. For I-section: ~1.12.

12.5 Welded and Bolted Connections

316. Fillet weld strength: fu/(√3 × γmw) per unit throat area. Design capacity = 0.707 × size × L × fu/(√3 × γmw).
317. HSFG bolts (High Strength Friction Grip): Rely on friction. No slip at SLS. Capacity = μ × (preloading force ×
No. of friction surfaces).
318. Bearing type bolts: Shear on shank. Capacity = 0.6 fu × Anb (shear) or 2.5 kb × d × t × fu (bearing),
whichever governs.
319. Minimum edge distance, pitch, end distance (IS 800 Table 10): Prevent splitting and congestion.

12.6 Plastic Analysis

320. Plastic hinge: Forms when moment reaches Mp = fy × Zp at a section. Rotates freely, maintains Mp.
321. Collapse mechanism: Sufficient plastic hinges form → structure becomes mechanism.
322. No. of plastic hinges for collapse: n = DSI + 1 (for beams and frames with one mechanism).
323. Collapse load for fixed beam + central load: Pu = 16Mp/L (4 hinges: 2 at fixed ends + 1 at centre... wait: 2
plastic hinges form — fixed ends, then centre → 3 hinges for mechanism). Wpl = 16Mp/L.
Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 31
 324. Lower bound (static) theorem: Any stress distribution satisfying equilibrium and yield condition → lower
bound.
325. Upper bound (kinematic) theorem: Any mechanism with plastic hinges → upper bound.
326. Uniqueness theorem: If both conditions met simultaneously → exact collapse load.
327. Shape factor (f) = Mp/My = Zp/Ze: Rect = 1.5, I-section = 1.12.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. As per IS 800:2007, the partial safety factor for steel material against yielding (γm0) is: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 1.0 C) 1.25
✔ B) 1.1 D) 1.5
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 800:2007: γm0 = 1.10 (against yielding of gross section). γm1 = 1.25 (against fracture of
net section). IS 800:2007 adopts LSM — Design yield strength = fy/γm0 = fy/1.10. Contrast with IS 456 where γs =
1.15 for steel in RCC.

Q2. Design tensile strength of a tension member (yielding of gross section) as per IS 800:2007 is:
★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Tdg = Ag fu / γm1 C) Tdg = An fu / γm1
✔ B) Tdg = Ag fy / γm0 D) Tdg = 0.9 An fu / γm1
Ans: B | Explanation: IS 800:2007 Clause 6.2: Tdg = Ag × fy / γm0 (yielding of gross section). Tdn = 0.9 × An ×
fu / γm1 (fracture of net section). Design tensile strength = min(Tdg, Tdn, Tdb — block shear). Net section fracture
can govern when holes are present.

Q3. The plastic section modulus Zp for a rectangular section (b × D) is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) bD²/6 C) bD²/8
✔ B) bD²/4 D) bD²/12
Ans: B | Explanation: Plastic modulus Zp = (A/2)(ȳ_top + ȳ_bot) for rectangular section: Zp = bD²/4. Elastic
modulus Ze = bD²/6. Shape factor f = Zp/Ze = (bD²/4)/(bD²/6) = 1.5. For I-sections: shape factor ≈ 1.10-1.15.

Q4. In plastic analysis, the number of plastic hinges required to convert a fixed-fixed beam into a
mechanism is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 1 ✔ C) 3
B) 2 D) 4
Ans: C | Explanation: Fixed-fixed beam: DSI = 3. Plastic hinges for collapse = DSI + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4? No: For a
BEAM mechanism: hinges needed = DSI + 1 for each independent mechanism. Fixed-fixed beam with central load:
3 hinges (at both fixed ends + centre load point) → collapse. Not 4.

Q5. Shape factor for a circular solid cross-section is: ★ ADVANCED

A) 1.5 ✔ C) 1.27
B) 1.7 D) 1.0
Ans: C | Explanation: Shape factor (f = Zp/Ze): Rectangle = 1.5; Circle = 16/(3π) ≈ 1.70... Actually: For solid
circle: Ze = πd³/32, Zp = d³/6. Shape factor = (d³/6)/(πd³/32) = 32/(6π) = 16/(3π) ≈ 1.70. For diamond (square at
45°): f = 2.0.

Q6. Lateral torsional buckling (LTB) in steel beams occurs when: ★ IMPORTANT
A) Compression flange is fully braced ✔ C) Compression flange is unbraced over a
long unsupported length — beam buckles
sideways
B) The beam is short and stocky D) Only tension flange is present
Ans: C | Explanation: Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB): Unbraced compression flange tends to buckle sideways
(laterally) while tension flange remains straight → combined lateral bending + torsion. Prevented by: lateral bracing,
compact sections, short spans. IS 800 provides LTB reduction factor χLT.

Q7. Collapse load for a fixed-fixed beam of span L with central point load P (using plastic analysis)
is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 32

 A) Pu = 4Mp/L ✔ C) Pu = 16Mp/L
B) Pu = 8Mp/L D) Pu = 12Mp/L
Ans: C | Explanation: Fixed-fixed beam + central load: At collapse, plastic hinges form at both fixed ends
(moments = Mp each) and at mid-span (moment = Mp). Virtual work: P × (δ/2) = Mp × θ + Mp × 2θ + Mp × θ (end +
mid + end) where virtual displacement δ = θL/2. Pu × (θL/4) = 4Mpθ → Pu = 16Mp/L.

Q8. Maximum slenderness ratio (KL/r) for compression members in IS 800:2007 is: ★ PREVIOUSLY
ASKED
A) 120 ✔ C) 180
B) 150 D) 250
Ans: C | Explanation: IS 800:2007 Clause 7.2.2: Maximum slenderness ratio KL/r ≤ 180 for compression
members (struts). For tension members: KL/r ≤ 400 (preferred). Higher slenderness → lower buckling resistance →
impractical and sensitive to initial imperfections.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 33

 UNIT 13: PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
THEORY NOTES

13.1 Concept and Advantages

328. Pre-stressing: Intentionally applying compressive stresses to concrete before service loads, to counteract
tensile stresses from loading.
329. Advantages: (a) Full section utilized (no cracking), (b) Higher span-to-depth ratio, (c) Better crack control, (d)
Higher fatigue resistance, (e) Longer spans (15-60m typical).
330. Pre-tensioned: Steel tensioned BEFORE concrete casting. Bond between wire/strand and concrete transfers
prestress after cutting. Precast only.
331. Post-tensioned: Steel tensioned AFTER concrete hardening. Cables in ducts, anchored at ends. In-situ
possible.
332. IS 1343:2012: Code for pre-stressed concrete in India.
333. Minimum concrete grade: M30 for post-tensioned, M35 for pre-tensioned (IS 1343).

13.2 Losses in Pre-stress

334. Immediate losses (short-term): (1) Elastic shortening of concrete (ES), (2) Friction loss (curved cables), (3)
Wobble friction, (4) Anchorage slip/draw-in.
335. Time-dependent losses (long-term): (5) Shrinkage of concrete, (6) Creep of concrete, (7) Relaxation of
prestressing steel.
336. Total losses: Pre-tensioned ≈ 15-25%; Post-tensioned ≈ 10-20%.
337. Elastic shortening loss: ΔPes = m × fc = (Es/Ec) × fc × Aps, m = modular ratio.
338. Creep loss: ΔPcreep = Ccu × (fc/Ec) × Es × Aps, Ccu = ultimate creep coefficient ≈ 1.6-2.0 (IS 1343).
339. Shrinkage loss: ΔPsh = εsh × Es × Aps, εsh = 0.0003 (pre-tensioned) / 0.0002 (post-tensioned).
340. Relaxation loss: From IS 1343 Table 5 — typically 2-5% of initial prestress.

13.3 Analysis of Pre-stressed Beams

341. Stress at top and bottom fibre due to pre-stress and loading:
342. σtop = P/A − Pe/Zt + M/Zt (where e = eccentricity, P = pre-stress force, Zt = section modulus top, M = applied
moment).
343.σbot = P/A + Pe/Zb − M/Zb.
[Link] for no tension (fully pre-stressed): All fibres in compression under all loading conditions.
[Link] (core) concept: For P within kern, no tension in section. Kern limits: ktop = Zb/A, kbot = Zt/A.
[Link] diagram: Linear relationship between 1/P and e — graphical design aid.

13.4 Design of PSC Beams

347. Limit state: Flexure, shear, deflection (including long-term due to creep and shrinkage).
348. Shear design: Additional shear capacity from inclined tendons. Shear reinforcement (stirrups) also required.
349. Anchorage zone: High concentrated forces at anchor — local bursting reinforcement required (Helical ties or
orthogonal bars).
350. Concordant cable: Profile that does not change the reactions (reactions same as before prestress). Ideal for
indeterminate structures.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. In pre-tensioning, the prestress is transferred to concrete by: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED

A) Anchor plates at ends of beam C) Friction at the cable-concrete interface
✔ B) Bond between prestressing wire/strand D) External anchor bolts
and surrounding concrete

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 34

 Ans: B | Explanation: Pre-tensioned PSC: Wires/strands are tensioned BEFORE concrete casting. After concrete
gains sufficient strength (fci), prestressing wires are cut → tensile stress in wire → transferred to concrete by BOND
(no mechanical anchorage). Used for factory-made precast elements.

Q2. Minimum grade of concrete required for pre-tensioned pre-stressed concrete work as per IS
1343:2012 is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) M25 ✔ C) M35
B) M30 D) M40
Ans: C | Explanation: IS 1343:2012: Minimum concrete grade: Pre-tensioned PSC = M35; Post-tensioned PSC =
M30. Higher grade ensures: adequate bond strength, reduced creep/shrinkage losses, adequate durability for high-
stressed members.

Q3. Which of the following is a TIME-DEPENDENT loss of prestress? ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED

A) Elastic shortening C) Friction loss
B) Anchorage slip ✔ D) Creep of concrete
Ans: D | Explanation: Time-dependent (long-term) losses: Creep of concrete, Shrinkage of concrete, Relaxation
of steel. Immediate (short-term) losses: Elastic shortening, Friction (curved duct), Wobble friction, Anchorage draw-
in. Total long-term losses typically = 8-15% of initial prestress.

Q4. The Magnel diagram is a graphical tool used in PSC design to find: ★ ADVANCED
A) Shear reinforcement requirements C) Deflection under service loads
✔ B) Feasible range of prestress force P and D) Creep losses
eccentricity e satisfying stress limits
Ans: B | Explanation: Magnel diagram: Plots 1/P vs e (or P vs e). Four stress inequalities (no tension at
top/bottom under transfer + service) form a feasible region. Any P-e combination inside the region satisfies all stress
conditions. Used to optimize cable profile and initial prestress.

Q5. The loss of prestress due to elastic shortening in a pre-tensioned member is: ★ IMPORTANT
A) Zero (no elastic shortening in pre- C) εsh Es Aps
tensioning)
✔ B) mfc (where m = Es/Ec, fc = stress in D) Creep coefficient × elastic strain
concrete at steel level)
Ans: B | Explanation: Elastic shortening loss (pre-tensioned): When wires are cut, concrete shortens elastically
→ wire shortens too → stress in wire reduces by ΔP = m × fc × Aps. m = Es/Ec (modular ratio ≈ 6-7 for PSC). In
post-tensioned members, elastic shortening loss depends on jacking order — for simultaneous jacking: zero.

Q6. Stress at bottom fibre of a pre-stressed beam under eccentric prestress P (eccentricity e below
centroid) and sagging moment M is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) P/A − Pe/Zb + M/Zb C) P/A + Pe/Zt − M/Zt
✔ B) P/A + Pe/Zb − M/Zb D) Pe/Zb − M/Zb
Ans: B | Explanation: Bottom fibre stress: σbot = P/A (direct compression) + Pe/Zb (hogging by eccentric P adds
compression at bottom) − M/Zb (sagging M causes tension at bottom). For no tension at bottom: σbot ≥ 0 under
maximum service moment. This is the governing design condition.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 35

 UNIT 14: RETAINING WALLS AND PLASTIC ANALYSIS
THEORY NOTES

14.1 Earth Pressure Theories

351. Rankine's theory: For frictionless, vertical, smooth wall. Active pressure: Ka = (1−sinϕ)/(1+sinϕ) =
tan²(45°−ϕ/2). Passive pressure: Kp = 1/Ka.
352. Coulomb's wedge theory: Accounts for wall friction (δ) and inclined wall/backfill. More accurate for most
practical cases.
353. Active state: Wall moves away from soil → soil expands → active pressure (minimum). pa = Ka γz (at depth
z).
354. Passive state: Wall pushed into soil → soil compressed → passive pressure (maximum). pp = Kp γz.
355. At-rest pressure: K₀ = 1 − sinϕ (Jaky's formula). No wall movement. K₀ = 0.4-0.5 for dense sand.

14.2 Types of Retaining Walls and Design

356. Gravity retaining wall: Relies on self-weight. Concrete/masonry. Economical for h < 3m.
357. Cantilever retaining wall: Thin stem + base slab. Steel reinforcement provides stability. Economic for h = 3-
8m.
358. Counterfort retaining wall: Thin stem with counterfort (triangular webs) at intervals. For h > 6m.
359. Stability checks: (a) Overturning — FS ≥ 2.0; (b) Sliding — FS ≥ 1.5; (c) Bearing — max soil pressure ≤ SBC;
(d) Global stability (slope failure).
360. Point of application of resultant for stability: Should be within middle third (e ≤ B/6) for no tension under base.

14.3 Plastic Analysis — Detailed

361. Plastic moment Mp = fy × Zp (full plasticity at section). Yield moment My = fy × Ze.
362. Mechanisms: (a) Beam mechanism — sagging hinge at load point + hogging hinges at supports; (b) Sway
mechanism — column sway in frames; (c) Combined — beam + sway.
363. Virtual work method for collapse load: Internal work = External work. ΣMp θ = ΣP δ.
364. For propped cantilever with central load: Wpl = 6Mp/L (hinges at fixed end and central load point — 2
hinges).
365. For SSB with UDL: Wpl = 16Mp/L² (hinge at mid-span — 1 hinge only — but wait: SSB is already
determinate, 1 hinge = mechanism). wL²/8 = Mp → w = 8Mp/L².
366. Effect of axial force on Mp: Mpc = Mp[1−(P/Py)²] (reduced plastic moment under combined axial + bending).

14.4 Theorems of Plastic Analysis

367. Lower Bound (Safe) Theorem: Any statically admissible moment distribution (equilibrium + nowhere exceeds
Mp) → applied load ≤ collapse load. Safe — won't collapse.
368. Upper Bound (Unsafe) Theorem: Any kinematically admissible mechanism → applied load ≥ collapse load.
May predict higher load than actual — unsafe/non-conservative for loads.
369. Uniqueness Theorem: If a stress field is simultaneously: statically admissible AND kinematically admissible
(mechanism) → it gives the EXACT collapse load.
370. Plastic analysis assumes: Elastic-perfectly plastic material, sufficient ductility for plastic hinge rotation.

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. Rankine's active earth pressure coefficient Ka for soil with internal friction angle ϕ = 30° is: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 0.5 C) 0.25
✔ B) 0.333 D) 0.577
Ans: B | Explanation: Ka = (1−sinϕ)/(1+sinϕ) = tan²(45°−ϕ/2). For ϕ=30°: Ka = (1−sin30°)/(1+sin30°) =
(1−0.5)/(1+0.5) = 0.5/1.5 = 1/3 ≈ 0.333. Kp = 1/Ka = 3.0. Active pressure much less than passive — significant
difference in design of sheet piles.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 36

Q2. Factor of safety against overturning for a retaining wall should be at least: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 1.0 ✔ C) 2.0
B) 1.5 D) 3.0
Ans: C | Explanation: Stability requirements for retaining walls: FS against overturning ≥ 2.0 (IS 456 / standard
practice). FS against sliding ≥ 1.5. Maximum base pressure ≤ Safe Bearing Capacity. Resultant force within middle-
third of base (e ≤ B/6) to prevent tension.

Q3. The collapse load for a simply supported beam of span L with central point load (plastic
analysis), given plastic moment Mp, is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) Pu = 2Mp/L C) Pu = 8Mp/L
✔ B) Pu = 4Mp/L D) Pu = 16Mp/L
Ans: B | Explanation: SSB is statically determinate. At collapse: 1 plastic hinge forms at mid-span (highest BM
point). BM at centre = PuL/4 = Mp → Pu = 4Mp/L. Only 1 hinge needed (SSB already mechanism with 1 hinge —
determinate structure). Virtual work: Pu(θL/2) = Mp(2θ) → Pu = 4Mp/L. ✓

Q4. The number of plastic hinges required to form a collapse mechanism in a propped cantilever
beam is: ★ PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) 1 C) 3
✔ B) 2 D) 4
Ans: B | Explanation: Propped cantilever: DSI = 1 (one redundant). Plastic hinges for collapse = DSI + 1 = 2. For
central point load: Hinges form at fixed end (highest sagging... no, hogging) and at load point. At collapse: Mp at
fixed support + Mp at load → mechanism. Wpl = 6Mp/L.

Q5. Jaky's formula for at-rest earth pressure coefficient K₀ for normally consolidated soil is: ★
PREVIOUSLY ASKED
A) K₀ = sinϕ C) K₀ = 1 + sinϕ
✔ B) K₀ = 1 − sinϕ D) K₀ = tanϕ
Ans: B | Explanation: Jaky's formula: K₀ = 1 − sinϕ (for normally consolidated soil, no wall movement). For
overconsolidated soil: K₀ > 1−sinϕ (higher due to past stresses). Typical values: Dense sand ϕ=35°: K₀=0.43; Soft
clay ϕ=20°: K₀=0.66.

Q6. The lower bound theorem of plastic analysis states: ★ IMPORTANT

A) Any mechanism load is an upper bound to C) Collapse load is always at mid-span
collapse
✔ B) Any statically admissible stress D) Exact collapse load equals elastic limit
distribution satisfying yield condition → load
is safe (≤ collapse)
Ans: B | Explanation: Lower Bound (Static) Theorem: If a stress distribution can be found that: (1) is in
equilibrium with external loads, (2) does not violate yield condition anywhere → the applied load will NOT cause
collapse. Gives conservative (safe) estimate. Used in strut-and-tie models for RCC.

Q7. Shape factor for an I-section (typical structural steel section) is approximately: ★ IMPORTANT
A) 1.0 C) 1.5
✔ B) 1.12 D) 2.0
Ans: B | Explanation: Shape factor f = Zp/Ze ≈ 1.10-1.15 for standard I-sections (most area in flanges, web has
small contribution to shape factor). Rectangle = 1.5 (large difference between plastic and elastic). Circle = 1.70.
Diamond = 2.0. I-section shape factor close to 1 because flanges dominate.

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 37

 IMPORTANT COMPARISONS & QUICK REVISION TABLE
Essential for Exam

Comparison Value / Description

SSB δmax vs Cantilever δmax (same span, load Cantilever = 16 × SSB deflection
P)
Pin vs Fixed support — reactions Pin: 2 reactions (H,V); Fixed: 3 (H,V,M)
Pre-tensioned vs Post-tensioned PSC Pre: bond transfer; Post: mechanical anchor
Active vs Passive earth pressure Active Ka < 1 (wall moves away); Passive Kp > 1 (wall
pushed in)
Short vs Slender column (IS 456) Short: le/D ≤ 12; Slender: le/D > 12
Lower bound vs Upper bound theorem LB = safe (≤ collapse); UB = unsafe (≥ collapse)
SFD under UDL Linear (1st degree)
BMD under UDL Parabolic (2nd degree)
BMD under point load Linear/triangular (1st degree)
Pratt truss diagonals In tension under gravity load
Howe truss diagonals In compression under gravity load
Parabolic arch under UDL Zero bending moment (funicular arch)
COF in MDM — far end fixed vs pinned Fixed: 0.5; Pinned: 0
Stiffness (MDM) — far end fixed vs pinned Fixed: 4EI/L; Pinned: 3EI/L
γm0 (IS 800) vs γc (IS 456) vs γs (IS 456) 1.10 (steel yield) vs 1.5 (concrete) vs 1.15 (steel in RCC)
One-way slab: main steel direction Shorter span (Ly/Lx > 2)
Two-way slab: both directions Shorter span Lx AND longer span Ly (Ly/Lx ≤ 2)
Fe250 vs Fe415 vs Fe500 (xu,max/d) 0.53 vs 0.48 vs 0.46
Plastic hinges for collapse: SSB vs propped 1 vs 2 vs 3 hinges
cantilever vs fixed-fixed

Total Questions: 115 | 14 Units | Complete Structures Syllabus — Basic to Advanced

All major IS codes covered: IS 456 | IS 800 | IS 1343 | IS 875 | IS 1893

Structures — Comprehensive Notes & Question Bank | Page 38