Yeditepe University

Physics for the Health Sciences

Chapter 2
Outline
Week Chapter Content
1 Ch.1 Introduction Units, numbers, dimensional analysis, math intro
2 Ch.2. Describing Motion: Ref. frames, displacement, velocity, acceleration
3 Kinematics in One Dimension How to solve physics problems, free fall motion
4 Ch.3 Kinematics in Vectors and scalars, vector kinematics
5 Two or Three Dimension Scientific revolution, projectile motion
6 Ch.4 Dynamics: Newton’s Laws Mass, weight, force, Newton’s laws of motion
7 Ch.5 Using Newton’s Laws Friction forces, uniform circular motion
8 Ch.6 Gravitation Midterm exam
9 Ch.13 Fluids Density, pressure, buoyancy, Archimedes’ principle
10 Ch.7 Work and Energy Work, kinetic energy, work-energy principle
11 Ch.8 Conservation of Energy Potential energy, conservation of energy, power
12 Ch.9 Linear Momentum Momentum and its conservation, collisions in 1D
13 Ch.10 & 11 Rotational Motion Angular quantities, torque, moment of inertia
14 Ch.12 Static Equilibrium Static equilibrium conditions, stability and balance
Finals Ch.14 & 15 Oscillations & Waves Final exam
 Chapter 2
Describing Motion: Kinematics in 1-D
Prologue
Mechanics: Study of the motion of objects, and the related concepts of force & energy
Kinematics: How objects move (displacement, velocity, acceleration)
Dynamics : What makes objects move (force, potential, energy)

Translational motion: Moving without rotating, like in (a), not (b) (a) (b)
In this lecture, we will learn about kinematics of one-dimensional
translational motion: motion along a straight line without rotation.

Point particle: A mathematical point with no size.

We will model the moving objects as point particles,
mainly because, point particles cannot rotate.
Recall from first lecture that the aim of physics is to understand
how things work, and to do that, we make approximations in general.
In this special case, we approximate objects as point particles,
to understand their translational motion on the simplest grounds.
For the object in (b), points on the object do not follow a straight line
in general. But still, we can find a point that only translates, see the
blue point. We can investigate the motion of that point only,
without any need of approximating the whole object as a point particle.
Chapter Outline
I. Reference Frames and Displacement
II. Average Velocity
III. Instantaneous Velocity
IV. Acceleration
V. Motion at Constant Acceleration
VI. Solving Problems
[Link] Falling Objects
[Link] Analysis
I. Reference Frames and Displacement
Any measurement of position, speed, etc. must be made with respect to a reference frame.
Example: If you are sitting on a fast-traveling train and the ticket collector walks down the aisle,
his speed with respect to you is about few kilometers per hour (walking speed). But his speed
with respect to someone sitting on the ground is much higher (about the speed of the train).

A reference frame is a place to look from. It is the coordinate system we are measuring from.
The speed of the green ship depends on where it is measured from. 𝑣1
 It is 𝑣2 measured from the Earth (ref. frame S).
S′
𝑣=0
 It is 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 measured from the blue ship (ref. frame S ′ ).
𝑣1
S 𝑣2
I. Reference Frames and Displacement
When specifying the motion of an object, it is important to specify the direction of motion.
In physics, we often draw a set of coordinate axes, to represent a reference frame. We can
choose the origin of the coordinate axes and the direction of 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes as we like for
convenience, but we always choose the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes perpendicular to each other.

Position of an object is given by its coordinates. +y

–x +x
0

In the coordinate axes shown here,

 an object to the right of the origin has a positive 𝑥 coordinate,
 an object to the left of the origin has a negative 𝑥 coordinate, –y
 an object above the origin has a positive 𝑦 coordinate,
 an object below the origin has a negative 𝑦 coordinate.
I. Reference Frames and Displacement
We make a distinction between the distance traveled by an object
and its displacement, which is the change in position of the object.

Imagine a person walking 70 m east and then turn around and walk 30 m west.
 Distance traveled = 70 m + 30 m = 100 m (shown with the dashed path)
measured along the actual path.
 Displacement = 70 m– 30 m = 40 m (shown with the blue arrow)
how far the object is from its starting point, regardless of how it got there.

Displacement is a vector.
It has both a magnitude and a direction.
We represent vectors with arrows.

In 1-D, direction can be represented by a sign.

Vectors pointing in one direction are (+) and in the opposite direction are (–).
Which direction to represent positive direction is totally up to our convenience.
I. Reference Frames and Displacement
displacement = change in position Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 – 𝑥1

Assuming that we choose right to be the positive direction:

To Right: Positive Displacement To Left: Negative Displacement

Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 – 𝑥1 Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 – 𝑥1
= 30 m – 10 m = 10 m – 30 m
= 20 m = – 20 m
II. Average Velocity
Speed is a scalar measuring how much distance an object travels in a time interval.
Distance Traveled
Average Speed =
Time Elapsed
Velocity is a vector measuring how far an object reaches in a time interval.
Displacement 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 Δ𝑥
Average Velocity = 𝑣= =
Time Elapsed 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 Δ𝑡

Reaches to final point in 40 s. Assuming all numbers have 2 sig. fig.s,

100 m
Average speed = = 2.5 m/s
40 s
40 m
Average velocity = = 1.0 m/s
40 s

Example: During a 10.0 s time interval, a walker’s position changed from 𝑥1 = 30 m to

𝑥2 = 10 m (both in two significant figures). What was the walker’s average velocity?
Displacement: Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 – 𝑥1 = 10 m − 30 m = −20 m
Elapsed time (or time interval): Δ𝑡 = 10.0 s
Average velocity: 𝑣 = Δ𝑥/Δ𝑡 = −20 m / 10.0 s = −2.0 s
II. Average Velocity
Example: Men’s 400 meters world record is held by Wayde van Niekerk by 43.03 seconds
(2016 Rio Olympics). What was his average velocity in between start and finish?
Rio de Janeiro Olympics Stadium (Wikipedia)

400 m is the circumference of a track. So,

the start and finish of the race is at the
same point, assuming van Niekerk raced on
the innermost track.

Hence, the displacement is Δ𝑥 = 0.

Δ𝑥
Average velocity = 𝑣 = =0
Δ𝑡

Example: What was his average speed between start and finish?

400 m
Average speed = = 9.296 m/s
43.03 s
Note that the distance “400 m” in this question has at least four significant figures as it is
determined up to a precision of at least decimeters (±0.1 m).
II. Average Velocity
Example: A ship travels east 3100 km at a speed of 79 km/h, and then boosts its speed to
99 km/h for the next 2800 km. (a) What was the total time for the trip? (b) What was the
average velocity of the ship for this trip?
We represent the two parts of the trip by subscripts 1 and 2.

(a) (b)
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑥 Δ𝑥 Δ𝑥1 + Δ𝑥2
𝑣= ⇒ Δ𝑡 = 𝑣= =
Δ𝑡 𝑣 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡

Δ𝑥1 Δ𝑥2 3100 km + 2800 km 5900 km

Δ𝑡 = Δ𝑡1 + Δ𝑡2 = + 𝑣= = = 87.38 km/h
𝑣1 𝑣2 67.52 h 67.52 h

3100 km 2800 km 𝑣 = 87 h
Δ𝑡 = +
79 km/h 99 km/h
Note that a simple averaging gives a wrong answer of
Δ𝑡 = 39.24 h + 28.28 h = 67.52 h ½(79 km/h + 99 km/h) = 89 km/h. In the lecture,
we will talk more about why the correct answer is
Δ𝑡 = 68 h smaller than 89 km/h. Please think about why, before
attending the class.
III. Instantaneous Velocity
Instantaneous velocity is the average velocity over an
infinitesimally short time interval. In one dimension,
instantaneous velocity can be calculated as
Δ𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = lim = .
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡

So, it is the slope of the tangent to the 𝑥(𝑡) curve.

Graphical analysis:
 Velocity is positive and increasing until 𝑡 < 𝑡2 .
 Velocity is positive and decreasing for 𝑡2 < 𝑡 < 𝑡3 .
 Velocity is zero at 𝑡 = 𝑡3 .
 Velocity is negative and its magnitude (that is
speed) is increasing for 𝑡 > 𝑡3 .
III. Instantaneous Velocity

constant velocity varying velocity

average velocity = instantaneous velocity Averages are not necessarily equal to

instantaneous values, although they
average speed = instantaneous speed may be equal at some instants.
magnitude of velocity = speed magnitude of ins. velocity = ins. speed
IV. Acceleration
Acceleration specifies how rapidly the velocity of an object is changing.
Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by time taken to make this change.

Change of Velocity 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 Δ𝑣
Average Acceleration = 𝑎= =
Time Elapsed 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 Δ𝑡

 If an object’s speed (magnitude of its velocity) is increasing, the object is accelerating.

 If an object’s speed (magnitude of its velocity) is decreasing, the object is decelerating.

Do not confuse deceleration with negative acceleration. An object may have a negative
acceleration, but still speeding up, or another object may have a positive acceleration, but
slowing down.

 An object speeds up (accelerates) if its acceleration and velocity are in the same direction
(both positive or both negative).
 An object slows down (decelerates) if its acceleration and velocity are in opposite
directions (one positive and the other one negative).
IV. Acceleration
Example: A car slows down from 30 m/s to 5 m/s in 5 s. What is its average acceleration?

Let us take the direction of the car’s motion as the positive direction (+𝑥).
𝑡1 = 0 𝑣1 = 30 m/s 𝑡2 = 5 s 𝑣2 = 5 m/s
+𝑥
m m m
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 5 − 30 −25 s = −5 m
𝑎= = s s = acceleration
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 5s−0 5s s2

If we had taken the direction of the car’s motion opposite to the positive direction (+𝑥),
acceleration would have resulted in to be positive.
𝑡1 = 0 𝑣1 = −30 m/s 𝑡2 = 5 s 𝑣2 = −5 m/s
+𝑥
m m m
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 −5 s − −30 s 25 s m acceleration
𝑎= = = =5 2
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 5s−0 5s s
Both cases define the same physical reality, but the sign of the answer depends on which
direction is chosen positive. So, we cannot give an answer before defining a positive direction.
IV. Acceleration
Instantaneous acceleration is the average acceleration, in the limit as the time interval
becomes infinitesimally short. Hence, it is the slope of the tangent to the 𝑣 𝑡 curve.

Δ𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = lim =
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Like velocity, acceleration is a rate. The velocity

of an object is the rate at which its displacement
changes with time; while its acceleration is the
rate at which its velocity changes with time. In a
sense, acceleration is a “rate of a rate”.

𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝑥
𝑎= = = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 𝑎
V. Motion at Constant Acceleration
We can take the initial time to be zero (𝑡1 = 𝑡0 = 0);
𝑎
denote initial position (𝑥1 ) and velocity (𝑣1 ) respectively by 𝑥0 and 𝑣0 ;
let 𝑡2 = 𝑡 be the elapsed time;
when the position (𝑥2 ) and velocity (𝑣2 ) are respectively 𝑥 𝑡 and 𝑣 𝑡 . 𝑡

𝑣 𝑡 −𝑣0 𝑣
Acceleration constant: 𝑎 = 𝑎 = 𝑡
⇒ 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎 𝑡

𝑣0 + 𝑣 𝑡 𝑣
Since the velocity increases at a uniform rate,
𝑣 is the average of initial and final velocities: 𝑣=
2 𝑣0

𝑥 𝑡 −𝑥0
𝑡
Avg. velocity from 0 to 𝑡: 𝑣= ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣 𝑡
𝑡
𝑥
1
Combining these equations, we get: 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 2 𝑎 𝑡 2

Eliminating time, we can also write: 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑥0

These four equations apply for (but only for) constant acceleration. 𝑡
V. Motion at Constant Acceleration
Example: A world-class sprinter can burst out of the blocks to essentially top speed (of about
11.5 m/s) in the first 15.0 m of the race. What is the average acceleration of this sprinter,
and how long does it take her to reach that speed? (Note: Assume constant acceleration.)
For we are interested only in the “average” acceleration, we can assume constant acceleration.

Choose the direction of run as +𝑥

and the origin as the starting point.
𝑡 = 𝑡0 = 0 𝑡 = 𝑡1 +𝑥 Choose the initial time as 𝑡 = 0.
𝑥0 = 0 𝑥1 = 15.0 m
𝑣0 = 0 𝑣1 = 11.5 m/s

𝑣12 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 𝑣1 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎 𝑡1

𝑣12 − 𝑣02 𝑣1 − 𝑣0
𝑎= 𝑡1 =
2 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 𝑎

11.5 m/s 2 − 02 11.5 m/s − 0

𝑎= = 4.4083 m/s2 𝑡1 = = 2.6087 s
2 15.0 m − 0 4.4083 m/s 2

𝑎 = 4.41 m/s 2 𝑡1 = 2.61 s

Thinking about Olympics, these results make sense.

VI. Solving Problems
Physics is not a collection of equations to be memorized. Simply searching for an equation
that may work can lead to wrong results. The following “strategy” helps a lot in problem solving.
VI. Solving Problems
Example: A truck going at a constant speed of 25 m/s passes a car at rest. The instant the
truck passes the car, the car begins to accelerate at a constant 1.00 m/s2 . How long does it
take for the car to catch up with the truck?

𝑥 𝑥0T = 0 𝑥0C = 0
𝑣T = 25 m/s 𝑎C = 1.00 m/s2
𝑥1
𝑥T 𝑡1 = ? when 𝑥C 𝑡1 = 𝑥T 𝑡1

𝑥C 0 0
1
𝑡 𝑥T 𝑡 = 𝑥0T + 𝑣0T 𝑡 + 2 𝑎T 𝑡 2 ⇒ 𝑥T = 𝑣T 𝑡
𝑡1
1 1
𝑥C 𝑡 = 𝑥0C + 𝑣0C 𝑡 + 2 𝑎C 𝑡 2 ⇒ 𝑥C = 2 𝑎C 𝑡 2
0 0
The car catches the truck at 𝑡 = 𝑡1 : 𝑥C 𝑡1 = 𝑥T 𝑡1
1 2 1 2𝑣T
𝑎 C 𝑡 = 𝑣T 𝑡1 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑣T ⇒ 𝑡1 =
2 1 2 C 1 𝑎C
2 25 m/s 50
𝑡1 = m/s = 1.00 s ⇒ 𝑡1 = 0.50 × 102 s
1.00 s
1
How far did the car travel to catch the truck? 𝑥C 𝑡1 = 𝑎C 𝑡12 ⇒ … ⇒ 𝑥C 𝑡1 = 1.2 km
2
Think about whether these numbers make sense.
VII. Freely Falling Objects
m
Free fall is the most common constant acceleration motion. 𝑣1 = 9.81
s
By experimentation Galileo showed that, near the surface of 𝑣2 = 19.6
m
the Earth and in the absence of air resistance, all objects fall s

with the same constant acceleration 𝑔 = 9.8 m/s 2 , which we

call the gravitational acceleration of the Earth. m
𝑣3 = 29.4
s
Note that on Earth’s surface, 𝑔 ranges from 9.764 m/s 2 to
9.834 m/s2 , depending on latitude, longitude, and altitude.
The standard value is 𝑔 = 9.80665 m/s2 .
Balmino et al. (2011)
Hirt et. al. (2013)
Also note that 𝑔 is a positive
number. When you define up
as the positive direction in a
problem, then acceleration
perturbation in 𝑔 (m/s 2 )
of an object in free fall is –𝑔.
−0.06 −0.04 −0.02 0 +0.02

Galileo’s way of explaining how objects fall initiated the scientific revolution.
Galileo let the genie out of the bottle, and the world has never been the
same as before him. His approach of simplification, idealization, mathematical
theorization, and experimental testing of the results of a theory became the
basics of scientific method we still use (for example to develop medicine, to
build better computers, to construct faster ships, or to land on Mars).
VII. Freely Falling Objects
Object thrown upward (at 𝑡 = 0 at position 𝑦0 with velocity 𝑣0 ) returning to initial position:
1
 Assuming up is the positive 𝑦 direction, 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 − 2 𝑔 𝑡 2 and 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣0 − 𝑔 𝑡 .
 Velocity is positive while going up, and negative while going down.
 Velocity changes sign (direction) at the highest reach. Velocity at the highest reach is zero.
 But acceleration 𝑎 = −𝑔 is constant throughout the whole motion.
 Time spent to go up = Time spent to go down
 Velocity returning to starting position = Velocity when it was thrown but with opposite sign

𝑎 𝑣 𝑦
+𝑦 𝑣0
𝑡up 2𝑡up 𝑡up 2𝑡up
𝑡 𝑡
𝑦0
−𝑣0 𝑦0
−𝑔
𝑡up 2𝑡up 𝑡
VII. Freely Falling Objects
Example: A stone is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 12.0 m/s from the edge of a
cliff. The distance from the bottom to the release point is 70.0 m. (a) How much later does it
reach the bottom of the cliff? (b) What is its speed just before hitting the ground? (c) What
total distance did it travel? [Gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/s 2 .]
𝑡 = 𝑡1 (a) Choose up as +𝑦, initial time as 𝑡 = 0 and initial position as 𝑦0 = 0.
𝑦 Name the time it takes to reach the highest point as 𝑡1 , when 𝑦 = 𝑦1 .
Name the time when stone hits ground as 𝑡2 , when 𝑦2 = −70.0 m.
𝑡=0 0
𝑡=0 𝑡1 𝑡2
𝑦0 = 0 𝑦1 𝑦2 = −70.0 m
𝑣0 = 12.0 m/s 𝑣1 = 0 𝑣2
1
𝑦2 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 𝑡2 − 2 𝑔 𝑡22
−70.0 m = 12.0 m/s 𝑡2 − 4.905 m/s 2 𝑡22
4.905 𝑡22 − 12.0 s 𝑡2 − 70.0 s2 = 0 ⟶ a quadratic equation
12.0 s± −12.0 s 2 −4 4.905 −70.0 s2
𝑡2 = = −2.7476 s , 5.1941 s
2 4.905
The answer we seek is 𝑡2 = 5.19 s.
𝑡 = 𝑡2
Think about the physical meaning of the negative solution!
VII. Freely Falling Objects
Example: A stone is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 12.0 m/s from the edge of a
cliff. The distance from the bottom to the release point is 70.0 m. (a) How much later does it
reach the bottom of the cliff? (b) What is its speed just before hitting the ground? (c) What
total distance did it travel? [Gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/s 2 .]
𝑡 = 𝑡1 (b) 𝑣2 = 𝑣0 −𝑔 𝑡2 = 12.0m/s − 9.81m/s 2 5.1941s = −38.954 m/s
𝑦
𝑣2 = −39.0 m/s
𝑡=0 0

(c) Total distance traveled is Δ𝑠 = 2𝑦1 + 70.0 m .

So, to calculate Δ𝑠, we need to find the maximum height 𝑦1 .
𝑣12 = 𝑣02 − 2 𝑔 𝑦1 − 𝑦0
0 0
𝑣02 12.0 m/s 2 144 m2 /s2
𝑦1 = = = = 7.3394 m
2 𝑔 2 9.81 m/s 2 19.62 m/s 2

Δ𝑠 = 2𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 14.679 m + 70.0 m = 84.679 m

Δ𝑠 = 84.7 m
𝑡 = 𝑡2 Δ𝑠 84.679 m
We could also calculate the average speed as = = 16.3 m/s .
Δ𝑡 5.1941 s
VIII. Graphical Analysis
Below is a graph of 𝑥 vs. 𝑡 (for an object
moving with constant velocity). The
velocity 𝑣 is the slope of the 𝑥 𝑡 curve.

Above is a graph of 𝑣 vs. 𝑡. The acceleration 𝑎

is the slope of the 𝑣 𝑡 curve, while the
displacement Δ𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥0 is the area
under the 𝑣 𝑡 curve.

3
A B Example: Find accelerations in the intervals A-B, and B-C.
Straight lines between points A and B and between points
2
B and C mean that the accelerations are constant, and
1
thus, equal to average accelerations in those intervals.
C D
𝑣B −𝑣A 3 m/s − 3 m/s
𝑎AB = = ⇒ 𝑎AB = 0
𝑡B −𝑡A 20 s − 15 s

𝑣C −𝑣B 1 m/s − 3 m/s

𝑎BC = = ⇒ 𝑎BC = −0.4 m/s2
𝑡C −𝑡B 25 s − 20 s
VIII. Graphical Analysis
Position-time graphs
Instantaneous velocity is the slope of the tangent to the 𝑥 𝑡 curve.

Each point on graph shows the We have a constant positive slope

position, 𝑥

object’s position 𝑥 at a time 𝑡. of the curve (a line in fact). So,

this object moves with constant
The object started to move positive velocity. The distance to
at 𝑡 = 0 from 𝑥0 = 0. the origin is always increasing. So,
it is moving in positive direction.
time, 𝑡

This object started to move at 𝑡 = 0, from 𝑥0 = 0 with a constant

velocity in the positive direction. Afterwards, it increased its speed,
still moving in the positive direction. Note that the slope of the
second part is larger than that of the first part. So, it was faster in
position, 𝑥

the second part. Then, it stopped for a while. Note that in this
interval, the objects position is not changing and the slope
(velocity) is zero. In the final part, it moves backwards in the
negative direction. The slope in this part is negative. The speed
time, 𝑡 (magnitude of velocity) of the backward motion is small compared
to the speeds of the forward motions in the first two parts.
VIII. Graphical Analysis
Position-time graphs
Instantaneous velocity is the slope of the tangent to the 𝑥 𝑡 curve.

The slope of the solid red curve decreases as time goes on (see the
thin black curves that show tangents at two instants in time), and
position, 𝑥

thus, this object slows down. The slope of the dotted pink curve
increases as time goes on, and hence, this object speeds up. Both
curves are always increasing, and thus, both objects are moving in
the positive direction with positive velocities.
time, 𝑡

The object, whose position is graphed with the solid red curve,
started its motion at 𝑡 = 0 from a positive initial position 𝑥0 > 0.
position, 𝑥

Note that the initial slope of the curve is zero. So, the initial velocity
time, 𝑡 of the object is 𝑣0 = 0. As time goes on, the slope (velocity)
decreases, but the magnitude of the slope (speed) increases. Thus,
the object is speeding up in the negative direction. The object
corresponding to the dotted pink curve starts its motion at 𝑥0 < 0
with 𝑣0 < 0. It slows down while moving in negative direction.
VIII. Graphical Analysis
Position-time graphs
Instantaneous velocity is the slope of the tangent to the 𝑥 𝑡 curve.
position, 𝑥

𝑎<0 𝑎>0

𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡3 time, 𝑡
This object begins its motion at initial position 𝑥0 = 0 with an initial velocity 𝑣0 > 0 at 𝑡 = 0.
It slowed down while moving in positive direction until 𝑡1 . At the instant 𝑡 = 𝑡1 , its velocity is
zero for a moment. Then it speeds up in the negative direction until 𝑡2 . For 𝑡2 < 𝑡 < 𝑡3 it
slows down while moving in negative direction. At the instant 𝑡 = 𝑡3 , its velocity is zero for a
moment again. Then it speeds up in the positive direction.
The acceleration is positive when an object speeds up in positive direction or slows down in
negative direction. The acceleration is negative when an object slows down in positive
direction or speeds up in negative direction. Therefore, the acceleration of this object is
negative before 𝑡2 and positive after 𝑡2 . At 𝑡 = 𝑡2 it has zero acceleration for a moment.
In general, when the 𝑥 𝑡 curve resembles a part of the orange curve shown on the right, we
have positive acceleration; a part of the blue curve, we have negative acceleration.
VIII. Graphical Analysis
Velocity-time graphs
Instantaneous acceleration is the slope of the tangent to the 𝑣 𝑡 curve.

This object is moving at constant velocity in positive direction.

velocity, 𝑣

Its velocity 𝑣 = 𝑣0 is constant. Acceleration is zero and constant.

time, 𝑡

This object has a negative initial velocity 𝑣0 < 0. It slows down

while moving in negative direction. Then stops for a moment
velocity, 𝑣

and starts speeding up in positive direction. Its acceleration is

always positive and constant. It is like an object initially thrown
up and following a free fall, with the positive direction chosen
time, 𝑡
to be downward.
VIII. Graphical Analysis
Velocity-time graphs
Instantaneous acceleration is the slope of the tangent to the 𝑣 𝑡 curve.

This object has a positive initial velocity 𝑣0 > 0. Magnitude of its

velocity, 𝑣

velocity is ever increasing, hence, it is speeding up. Velocity itself is

also increasing, thus it has positive acceleration. However, its
acceleration is decreasing (not constant).

time, 𝑡

This object has a positive initial velocity 𝑣0 > 0. First, it slows down
in positive direction, then speeds up in negative direction. Its
velocity, 𝑥

acceleration is always negative, but not constant. Magnitude of its

acceleration is increasing (see the tangent lines).
time, 𝑡
VIII. Graphical Analysis
Velocity-time graphs
Displacement is the area under the 𝑣 𝑡 curve.

Consider and object moving at a constant velocity 𝑣.

velocity, 𝑣

Since velocity is constant, it is equal to average velocity in any

𝑥 −𝑥
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 time interval, say between times 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 . Thus, 𝑣 = 𝑣 = 𝑡2−𝑡 1.
2 1

The displacement of the object between those two times is

𝑡1 𝑡2 time, 𝑡 therefore 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 𝑣 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 , which is the area under the
𝑣 𝑡 curve between those two times.
This idea does not only work for constant velocity, but it works for varying velocity in general.
Let us see the case of constant acceleration next.
velocity, 𝑣

Consider and object moving at constant acceleration 𝑎, with

𝑡 initial position 𝑥0 and initial velocity 𝑣0 . Let 𝑡1 = 0 and 𝑡2 = 𝑡.
Calculating the area under 𝑣 𝑡 , by dividing it into a rectangular
𝑎 𝑡 part and a triangular part, we obtain 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡 2 /2.
𝑎 𝑡 2 /2
𝑣0 This expression is nothing but the position expression we
𝑣0 𝑡 𝑣0 obtained earlier in Part V of this Chapter above. Hence, the idea
0 𝑡 time, 𝑡 of displacement being the area under the 𝑣 𝑡 curve works again.
VIII. Graphical Analysis
Velocity-time graphs
Displacement is the area under the 𝑣 𝑡 curve.
In the case of a motion that is composed
of many constant acceleration parts, we
velocity, 𝑣

can divide the area into rectangles and

triangles to calculate the area under
𝑣 𝑡 . Note that the areas of negative
time, 𝑡 velocity (shown in gray) must be taken as
negative, since they contribute negative
displacements.
The idea of displacement being the area under the 𝑣 𝑡 curve works not only for constant
velocity or for constant acceleration. In general, we think of an infinitesimally small time
interval between 𝑡 and 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡. We can ignore the change in velocity during such a small time
interval, and write the displacement during that time interval as 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡, as if 𝑣(𝑡) is
𝑥 𝑡
constant. By integrating both sides of this relation, we write 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡 2 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 .
1 1
The position integral is easy to calculate. It is just 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , which is the displacement between
times 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 . Therefore, we obtain that displacement as
𝑡2
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 𝑡1
𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 .
So, is the area under 𝑣(𝑡) from 𝑡1 to 𝑡2 gives the displacement 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 between those times.
Reference
C. D. Giancoli, Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics (Pearson, 2008) 4th ed.