STUDY MATERIAL FOR COMPULSORY COURSE ON ENVIRONMENTAL

STUDIES

Unit 1
The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE
1.1.1 Definition
1.1.2 Scope
1.1.3 Importance
1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
1.2.1 Institutions in Environment
1.2.2 People in Environment

The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE
1.1.1 Definition
Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is essentially a
multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world and human
impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science as its seeks practical answers to making
human civilization sustainable on the earth’s finite resources.
Its components include biology, geology, chemistry, physics, engineering, sociology,
health, anthropology, economics, statistics, computers and philosophy.

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1.1.2 Scope
As we look around at the area in which we live, we see that our surroundings were originally
a natural landscape such as a forest, a river, a mountain, a desert, or a combination of these
elements. Most of us live in landscapes that have been heavily modified by human beings,
in villages, towns or cities. But even those of us who live in cities get our food supply from
surrounding villages and these in turn are dependent on natural landscapes such as forests,
grasslands, rivers, seashores, for resources such as water for agriculture, fuel wood, fodder,
and fish. Thus our daily lives are linked with our surroundings and inevitably affects them.
We use water to drink and for other day-to-day activities. We breathe air, we use resources
from which food is made and we depend on the community of living plants and animals
which form a web of life, of which we are also a part. Everything around us forms our
environment and our lives depend on keeping its vital systems as intact as possible.

Our dependence on nature is so great that we cannot continue to live without protecting the
earth’s environmental resources. Thus most traditions refer to our environment as ‘Mother
Nature’ and most traditional societies have learned that respecting nature is vital for their
livelihoods. This has led to many cultural practices that helped traditional societies protect
and preserve their natural resources. Respect for nature and all living creatures is not new
to India. All our traditions are based on these values. Emperor Ashoka’s edict proclaimed
that all forms of life are important for our well being in Fourth Century BC.
Over the past 200 years however, modern societies began to believe that easy answers to
the question of producing more resources could be provided by means of technological
innovations. For example, though growing more food by using fertilizers and pesticides,
developing better strains of domestic animals and crops, irrigating farmland through mega
dams and developing industry, led to rapid economic growth, the ill effects of this type of
development, led to environmental degradation.
The industrial development and intensive agriculture that provides the goods for our
increasingly consumer oriented society uses up large amounts of natural resources such as
water, minerals, petroleum products, wood, etc. Non renewable resources, such as minerals
and oil are those which will be exhausted in the future if we continue to extract these without
a thought for subsequent generations. Renewable resources, such as timber and water, are
those which can be used but can be regenerated by natural processes such as regrowth or
rainfall. But these too will be depleted if we continue to use them faster than nature can
replace them. For example, if the removal of timber and firewood from a forest is faster than
the regrowth and regeneration of trees, it cannot replenish the supply. And loss of forest
cover not only depletes the forest of its resources, such as timber and other non-wood
products, but affect our water resources because an intact natural forest acts like a sponge
which holds water and releases it slowly. Deforestation leads to floods in the monsoon and
dry rivers once the rains are over. Such multiple effects on the environment resulting from
routine human activities must be appreciated by each one of us, if it is to provide us with
the resources we need in the long-term. Our natural resources can be compared with money
in a bank. If we use it rapidly, the capital will be reduced to zero. On the other hand, if we
use only the interest, it can sustain us over the longer term. This is called sustainable

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utilisation or development.
1.1.3 Importance
Environment is not a single subject. It is an integration of several subjects that include both
Science and Social Studies. To understand all the different aspects of our environment we
need to understand biology, chemistry, physics, geography, resource management,
economics and population issues. Thus the scope of environmental studies is extremely
wide and covers some aspects of nearly every major discipline.
We live in a world in which natural resources are limited. Water, air, soil, minerals, oil, the
products we get from forests, grasslands, oceans and from agriculture and livestock, are all
a part of our life support systems. Without them, life itself would be impossible. As we keep
increasing in numbers and the quantity of resources each of us uses also increases, the
earth’s resource base must inevitably shrink. The earth cannot be expected to sustain this
expanding level of utilization of resources. Added to this is misuse of resources. We waste

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or pollute large amounts of nature’s clean water; we create more and more material like
plastic that we discard after a single use; and we waste colossal amounts of food, which is
discarded as garbage. Manufacturing processes create solid waste byproducts that are
discarded, as well as chemicals that flow out as liquid waste and pollute water, and gases
that pollute the air. Increasing amounts of waste cannot be managed by natural processes.
These accumulate in our environment, leading to a variety of diseases and other adverse
environmental impacts now seriously affecting all our lives. Air pollution leads to
respiratory diseases, water pollution to gastro-intestinal diseases, and many pollutants are
known to cause cancer.
Improving this situation will only happen if each of us begins to take actions in our daily
lives that will help preserve our environmental resources. We cannot expect Governments
alone to manage the safeguarding of the environment, nor can we expect other people to
prevent environmental damage. We need to do it ourselves. It is a responsibility that each
of us must take on as one’s own.

Productive value of nature:

As scientists make new advances in fields such as biotechnology we begin to understand
that the world’s species contain an incredible and uncountable number of complex
chemicals. These are the raw materials that are used for developing new medicines and
industrial products and are a storehouse from which to develop thousands of new products
in the future. The flowering plants and insects that form the most species rich groups of
living organisms are thus vital for the future development of man. If we degrade their habitat
these species will become extinct. If one sees being sold or used, a product that comes from
an illegally killed wild species, if we do not inform the authorities, we become party to its
extinction. Once they are lost, man cannot bring them back. When we permit the destruction
of a forest, wetland or other natural area and do not protest about it, future generations are
being denied the use of these valuable resources and will blame us for these rash and
negligent actions towards the environment. Thus the urgent need to protect all living species
is a concept that we need to understand and act upon. While individually, we perhaps cannot
directly prevent the extinction of a species, creating a strong public opinion to protect the
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in which wild species live is an importance aspect
of sustainable living. There is a close link between agriculture and the forest, which
illustrates its productive value. For crops to be successful, the flowers of fruit trees and
vegetables must be pollinated by insects, bats and birds. Their life cycles however frequently
require intact forests.

Aesthetic/Recreational value of nature: The aesthetic and recreational values that nature
possesses enlivens our existence on earth. This is created by developing National Parks and
Wildlife Sanctuaries in relatively undisturbed areas. A true wilderness experience has not
only recreational value but is an incredible learning experience. It brings about an
understanding of the oneness of nature and the fact that we are entirely dependent upon the
intricate functioning of ecosystems.

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The beauty of nature encompasses every aspect of the living and non-living part of our earth.
One can appreciate the magnificence of a mountain, the power of the sea, the beauty of a
forest, and the vast expanse of the desert. It is these natural vistas and their incredible
diversity of plant and animal life that has led to the development of several philosophies of
life. It has also inspired artists to develop visual arts and writers and poets to create their
works that vitalize our lives.

A wilderness experience has exceptional recreational value. This has been described as
nature tourism, or wildlife tourism, and is also one aspect of adventure tourism. These
recreational facilities not only provide a pleasurable experience but are intended to create a
deep respect and love for nature. They are also key tools in educating people about the
fragility of the environment and the need for sustainable lifestyles.
In an urban setting, green spaces and gardens are vital to the pschycological and physical
health of city dwellers. It provides not only an aesthetic and visual appeal but the ability to
ensure that each individual is able to access a certain amount of peace and tranquillity. Thus
urban environmental planners must ensure that these facilities are created in growing urban
complexes. Another important conservation education facility in urban settings includes the
need to set up well designed and properly managed zoological parks and aquariums. These
have got great value in sensitizing school students to wildlife. Many young people who
frequented zoos as young children grow up to love wildlife and become conservationists.
In the absence of access to a Protected Area, a botanical garden or a zoo, one concept that
can be developed is to create small nature awareness areas with interpretation facilities at
district and taluka levels. These areas can be developed to mimic natural ecosystems even
though they could be relatively small in size. Such nature trails are invaluable assets for
creating conservation education and awareness. They can be developed in a small woodlot,
a patch of grassland, a pond ecosystem, or be situated along an undisturbed river or coastal
area. This would bring home to the visitor the importance of protecting our dwindling
wilderness areas.
The option values of nature: While we utilise several goods and services of nature and
enjoy its benefits, we must recognize that every activity that we do in our daily lives has an
adverse impact on nature’s integrity. Thus if we use up all our resources, kill off and let
species of plants and animals become extinct on earth, pollute our air and water, degrade
land, and create enormous quantities of waste, we as a generation will leave nothing for
future generations. Our present generation has developed its economies and lifestyles on
unsustainable patterns of life. however, nature provides us with various options on how we
utilize its goods and services. This is its option value. We can use up goods and services
greedily and destroy its integrity and long term values, or we can use its resources
sustainably and reduce our impacts on the environment. The option value allows us to use
its resources sustainably and preserve its goods and services for the future.
1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
As the earth’s natural resources are dwindling and our environment is being increasingly
degraded by human activities, it is evident that something needs to be done. We often feel

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that managing all this is something that the Government should do. But if we go on
endangering our environment, there is no way in which the Government can perform all
these clean-up functions. It is the prevention of environment degradation in which we must
all take part that must become a part of all our lives. Just as for any disease, prevention is
better than cure. To prevent ill-effects on our environment by our actions, is economically
more viable than cleaning up the environment once it is damaged. Individually we can play
a major role in environment management. We can reduce wasting natural resources and we
can act as watchdogs that inform the Government about sources that lead to pollution and
degradation of our environment.
This can only be made possible through mass public awareness. Mass media such as
newspapers, radio, television, strongly influence public opinion. However, someone has to
bring this about. If each of us feels strongly about the environment, the press and media will
add to our efforts. Politicians in a democracy always respond positively to a strong publicly
supported movement. Thus if you join an NGO that supports conservation, politicians will
make green policies. We are living on spaceship earth with a limited supply of resources.
Each of us is responsible for spreading this message to as many people as possible.
Suggested further activities for concerned students:
• Join a group to study nature, such as WWFI or BNHS, or another environmental group.
• Begin reading newspaper articles and periodicals such as ‘Down to Earth’, WWF-I
newsletter, BNHS Hornbill, Sanctuary magazine, etc. that will tell you more about our
environment. There are also several environmental websites.
• Lobby for conserving resources by taking up the cause of environmental issues during
discussions with friends and relatives. Practice and promote issues such as saving paper,
saving water, reducing use of plastics, practicing the 3Rs principle of reduce, reuse, recycle,
and proper waste disposal.
• Join local movements that support activities such as saving trees in your area, go on nature
treks, recycle waste, buy environmentally friendly products.
• Practice and promote good civic sense such as no spitting or tobacco chewing, no throwing
garbage on the road, no smoking in public places, no urinating or defecating in public places.
• Take part in events organised on World Environment Day, Wildlife Week, etc.
• Visit a National Park or Sanctuary, or spend time in whatever nature you have near your
home.

1.2.1 Institutions in Environment

There have been several Government and Nongovernment organizations that have led to
environmental protection in our country. They have led to a growing interest in
environmental protection and conservation of nature and natural resources. The traditional
conservation practices that were part of ancient India’s culture have however gradually
disappeared. Public awareness is thus a critical need to further environmental protection.
Among the large number of institutions that deal with environmental protection and

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conservation, a few well-known organizations include government organisations such as
the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs such as BNHS, WWF-I, etc.
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai: the BNHS began as a small society
of six members in 1883. It grew from a group of shikaris and people from all walks of life
into a major research organisation that substantially influenced conservation policy in the
country. The influence on wildlife policy building, research, popular publications and
peoples action have been unique features of the multifaceted society. Undoubtedly its major
contribution has been in the field of wildlife research. It is India’s oldest conservation
research based NGO and one that has acted at the forefront of the battle for species and
ecosystems. The BNHS publishes a popular magazine called Hornbill and also an
internationally well-known Journal on Natural History. Its other publications include the
Salim Ali Handbook on birds, JC Daniel’s book of Indian Reptiles, SH Prater’s book of
Indian Mammals and PV Bole’s book of Indian Trees. One of its greatest scientists was Dr.
Salim Ali whose ornithological work on the birds of the Indian subcontinent is world
famous. The BNHS has over the years helped Government to frame wildlife related laws
and has taken up battles such as the ‘Save the Silent Valley’ campaign.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-I), New Delhi: The WWF-I was initiated in 1969
in Mumbai after which the headquarters were shifted to Delhi with several branch offices
all over India. The early years focused attention on wildlife education and awareness. It runs
several programs including the Nature Clubs of India program for school children and works
as a think tank and lobby force for environment and development issues.
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi: Activities of this Center include
organising campaigns, holding workshops and conferences, and producing environment
related publications. It published a major document on the ‘State of India’s Environment’,
the first of its kind to be produced as a Citizen’s Report on the Environment. The CSE also
publishes a popular magazine, ‘Down to Earth’, which is a Science and Environment
fortnightly. It is involved in the publication of material in the form of books, posters, video
films and also conducts workshops and seminars on biodiversity related issues.
CPR Environmental Education Centre, Madras: The CPR EEC was set up in 1988. It
conducts a variety of programs to spread environmental awareness and creates an interest
in conservation among the general public. It focussed attention on NGOs, teachers, women,
youth and children to generally promote conservation of nature and natural resources. Its
programs include components on wildlife and biodiversity issues. CPR EEC also produces
a large number of publications.
Centre for Environment Education (CEE), Ahmedabad: The Centre for Environment
Education, Ahmedabad was initiated in 1989. It has a wide range of programs on the
environment and produces a variety of educational material. CEE’s Training in
Environment Education {TEE} program has trained many environment educators.

Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research (BVIEER),

Pune: This is part of the Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University. The Institute has a PhD,
a Masters and Bachelors program in Environmental Sciences. It also offers an innovative

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Diploma in Environment Education for in-service teachers. It implements a large outreach
programme that has covered over 135 schools in which it trains teachers and conducts
fortnightly Environment Education Programs. Biodiversity Conservation is a major focus
of its research initiatives. It develops low cost Interpretation Centres for Natural and
Architectural sites that are highly locale specific as well as a large amount of innovative
environment educational material for a variety of target groups. Its unique feature is that it
conducts environment education from primary school level to the postgraduate level. The
BVIEER has produced several EE aids. It has developed a teacher’s handbook linked to
school curriculum, a textbook for UGC for its undergraduate course on environment. Its
Director has developed a CD ROM on India’s biodiversity published by Mapin Publishers,
Ahmedabad.
Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora: The Organisation is a Nodal Agency which
supports NGOs in need of funds for their environment related activities. Its major program
is organising and training school teachers to use its locale specific Environment Education
Workbook Program. The main targets are linked with sustainable resource use at the village
level through training school children. Its environment education program covers about 500
schools.
Kalpavriksh, Pune: This NGO, initially Delhi based, is now working from Pune and is
active in several other parts of India. Kalpavriksh works on a variety of fronts: education
and awareness; investigation and research; direct action and lobbying; and litigation with
regard to environment and development issues. Its activities include talks and audio-visuals
in schools and colleges, nature walks and outstation camps, organising student participation
in ongoing campaigns including street demonstrations, pushing for consumer awareness
regarding organic food, press statements, handling green alerts, and meetings with the city’s
administrators. It is involved with the preparation of site-specific, environmental manuals
for schoolteachers. Kalpavriksh was responsible for developing India’s National
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan in 2003.
Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON), Coimbatore: This
institution was Dr. Salim Ali’s dream that became a reality only after his demise. He wished
to support a group of committed conservation scientists on a permanent basis. Initially
conceived as being a wing of the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) it later evolved
as an independent organisation based at Coimbatore in 1990. It has instituted a variety of
field programs that have added to the country’s information on our threatened biodiversity.
Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun: This Institution was established in 1982, as
a major training establishment for Forest Officials and Research in Wildlife Management.
Its most significant publication has been ‘Planning A Wildlife Protected Area Network for
India’ (Rodgers and Panwar, 1988). The organisation has over the years added an enormous
amount of information on India’s biological wealth. It has trained a large number of Forest
Department Officials and Staff as Wildlife Managers. Its [Link]. Program has trained
excellent wildlife scientists. It also has an Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) cell. It
trains personnel in ecodevelopment, wildlife biology, habitat management and Nature
interpretation.

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Botanical Survey of India (BSI): The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) was established in
1890 at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta. However it closed down for several years after
1939 and was reopened in 1954. In 1952 plans were made to reorganise the BSI and
formulate its objectives. By 1955 the BSI had its headquarters in Calcutta with Circle
Offices at Coimbatore, Shillong, Pune and Dehra Dun. Between 1962 and 1979, offices
were established in Allahbad, Jodhpur, Port Blair, Itanagar and Gangtok. The BSI currently
has nine regional centres. It carries out surveys of plant resources in different regions.
Zoological Survey of India (ZSI): The ZSI was established in1916. Its mandate was to do
a systematic survey of fauna in India. It has over the years collected ‘type specimens’ on
the bases of which our animal life has been studied over the years. Its origins were
collections based at the Indian Museum at Calcutta, which was established in 1875. Older
collections of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, which were made between 1814 and 1875, as
well as those of the Indian Museum made between 1875 and 1916 were then transferred to
the ZSI. Today it has over a million specimens! This makes it one of the largest collections
in Asia. It has done an enormous amount of work on taxonomy and ecology. It currently
operates from 16 regional centres.

1.2.2 People in Environment

There are several internationally known environmental thinkers. Among those who have
made landmarks, the names that are usually mentioned are Charles Darwin, Ralph Emerson,
Henry Thoreau, John Muir, Aldo Leopald, Rachel Carson and EO Wilson. Each of these
thinkers looked at the environment from a completely different perspective. Charles
Darwin wrote the ‘Origin of Species’, which brought to light the close relationship between
habitats and species. It brought about a new thinking of man’s relationship with other
species that was based on evolution. Alfred Wallace came to the same conclusions during
his work. Ralph Emerson spoke of the dangers of commerce to our environment way back
in the 1840s. HenryThoreau in the 1860s wrote that the wilderness should be preserved
after he lived in the wild for a year. He felt that most people did not care for nature and
would sell it off for a small sum of money. John Muir is remembered as having saved the
great ancient sequoia trees in California’a forests. In the 1890s he formed the Sierra club,
which is a major conservation NGO in the USA. Aldo Leopald was a forest official in the
US in the 1920s. He designed the early policies on wilderness conservation and wildlife
management. In the 1960s Rachel Carson published several articles that caused immediate
worldwide concern on the effects of pesticides on nature and mankind. She wrote a
wellknown book called ‘Silent Spring’ which eventually led to a change in Government
policy and public awareness. EO Wilson is an entomologist who envisioned that biological
diversity was a key to human survival on earth. He wrote ‘Diversity of Life’ in 1993, which
was awarded a prize for the best book published on environmental issues. His writings
brought home to the world the risks to mankind due to man made disturbances in natural
ecosystems that are leading to the rapid extinction of species at the global level.
There have been a number of individuals who have been instrumental in shaping the
environmental history in our country. Some of the well-known names in the last century
include environmentalists, scientists, administrators, legal experts, educationists and

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journalists. Salim Ali’s name is synonymous with ornithology in India and with the Bombay
Natural History Society (BNHS). He also wrote several great books including the famous
‘Book of Indian Birds’. His autobiography, ‘Fall of a Sparrow’ should be read by every
nature enthusiast. He was our country’s leading conservation scientist and influenced
environmental policies in our country for over 50 years. Indira Gandhi as PM has played
a highly significant role in the preservation of India’s wildlife. It was during her period as
PM, that the network of PAs grew from 65 to 298! The Wildlife Protection Act was
formulated during the period when she was PM and the Indian Board for Wildlife was
extremely active as she personally chaired all its meetings. India gained a name for itself by
being a major player in CITES and other International Environmental Treaties and Accords
during her tenure. BNHS frequently used her good will to get conservation action initiated
by the Government.

S P Godrej was one of India’s greatest supporters of wildlife conservation and nature
awareness programs. Between 1975 and 1999, SP Godrej received 10 awards for his
conservation activities. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1999. His friendship with
people in power combined with his deep commitment for conservation led to his playing a
major advocacy role for wildlife in India. M S Swaminathan is one of India’s foremost
agricultural scientists and has also been concerned with various aspects of biodiversity
conservation both of cultivars and wild biodiversity. He has founded the MS Swaminathan
Research Foundation in Chennai, which does work on the conservation of biological
diversity. Madhav Gadgil is a well known ecologist in India. His interests range from broad
ecological issues such as developing Community Biodiversity Registers and conserving
sacred groves to studies on the behaviour of mammals, birds and insects. He has written
several articles, published papers in journals and is the author of 6 books. M C Mehta is
undoubtedly India’s most famous environmental lawyer. Since 1984, he has filed several
Public Interest Litigations for supporting the cause of environmental conservation. His most
famous and long drawn battles supported by the Supreme Court include protecting the Taj
Mahal, cleaning up the Ganges River, banning intensive shrimp farming on the coast,
initiating Government to implement environmental education in schools and colleges, and
a variety of other conservation issues. Anil Agarwal was a journalist who wrote the first
report on the ‘State of India’s Environment’ in 1982. He founded the Centre for Science and
Environment which is an active NGO that supports various environmental issues. Medha
Patkar is known as one of India’s champions who has supported the cause of downtrodden
tribal people whose environment is being affected by the dams on the Narmada river.
SunderlalBahugna’s Chipko Movement has become an internationally well known
example of a highly successful conservation action program through the efforts of local
people for guarding their forest resources. His fight to prevent the construction of the Tehri
Dam in a fragile earthquake prone setting is a battle that he continues to wage. The Garhwal
Hills will always remember his dedication to the cause for which he has walked over 20
thousand kilometers.

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What is an Ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms
interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a
chain of interactions between organisms and their environment. The term “Ecosystem” was
first coined by [Link], an English botanist, in 1935.

Read on to explore the structure, components, types and functions of the ecosystem in the
notes provided below.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.

The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:

• Biotic Components
• Abiotic Components

The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system
where the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic
components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or
decomposers).

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 • Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can produce
food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the
food chain rely on producers for food.
• Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. Consumers
are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
• Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
• Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be
carnivores or omnivores.
• Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for
food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.

• Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on
tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain as
they have no natural predators.
• Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the dead
and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help in
recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water,
soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.

Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1.

1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and

renders stability.

2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.

3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.

4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.

5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that

involve the exchange of energy.

So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together in an

ecosystem are:

• Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.

• Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one trophic level to
another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers and then to
decomposers and finally back to the environment.

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 • Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-soil is the
major site for decomposition.
• Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various forms
for the utilisation by various organisms.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning
thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

• Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of
terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Tundra Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and microorganisms
that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in
maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.

Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate
grasslands and tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of grassland ecosystems.

Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is
scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type of ecosystem is found
in the Arctic or mountain tops.

Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall and scarce
vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem
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Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further
divided into two types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers,
streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.

Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt
content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for all plant
life. The plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used to
synthesise their food.

During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed
on through successive trophic levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and
eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.

Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its constituents by
scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the energy, the
reducers liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the
producers.

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2. Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass of
the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to
describe the ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.

The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to the
consumer level are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological
pyramid.

The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and
secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the
quaternary consumers are at the very apex of the food chain.

The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary
consumers outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the
same trend as the other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the
secondary consumers.

For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful.
These grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mouse, which are comparatively less
in number. The mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately
preyed on by apex predators such as the brown snake eagle.

In essence:

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Grasshopper →Mouse→ Cobra → Brown Snake Eagle

3. Food Web
Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains within
a single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food
chains. In a marine environment, phytoplankton forms the primary producer.

Forest Ecosystem
An ecosystem refers to a functional unit of nature in which living organisms
interact among themselves as well as with the surrounding physical
environment. Ecologists look at the entire biosphere as a global ecosystem.
Besides, the forest ecosystem is a part of the terrestrial ecosystem.

It, however, may vary largely in size i.e. from a small pond to a sea or a
large forest. Usually, these are self-sustaining. We can divide the
ecosystems into two broad categories, namely, terrestrial ecosystem and
aquatic ecosystem.

The terrestrial ecosystem includes desert, grassland and forest ecosystem,

whereas pond, lake, wetland and river ecosystem are parts of the aquatic
ecosystem.

What is Forest Ecosystem?

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A forest ecosystem is a functional unit or a system which comprises of soil,
trees, insects, animals, birds, and man as its interacting units. A forest is a
large and complex ecosystem and hence has greater species diversity.

Also, it is much more stable and resistant to the detrimental changes as

compared to the small ecosystems such as wetlands and grasslands.

A forest ecosystem, similar to any other ecosystem, also comprises of

abiotic and biotic components. Abiotic components refer to inorganic
materials like air, water, and soil. Biotic components include producers,
consumers, and decomposers.

These components interact with each other in an ecosystem and thus, this
interaction among them makes it self-sustainable.

Structural Features of the Forest Ecosystem

The two main structural features of a forest ecosystem are:

1. Species composition: It refers to the identification and enumeration of

the plant and animal species of a forest ecosystem.
2. Stratification: It refers to the vertical distribution of different species
which occupy different levels in the forest ecosystem. Every organism
occupies a place in an ecosystem on the basis of source of nutrition. For
example, in a forest ecosystem, trees occupy the top level, shrubs occupy
the second and the herbs and grasses occupy the bottom level.
Components of a Forest Ecosystem
The components of a forest ecosystem are as follows:

[Link]

The basic requirement for any ecosystem to function and sustain is the
constant input of solar energy. Plants are also the producers in a forest
ecosystem.

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There are two types of productivity in a forest ecosystem, primary and
secondary. Primary productivity means the rate of capture of solar energy or
biomass production per unit area over a period of time by the plants
during photosynthesis.

It is further divided into Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) and Net Primary
Productivity (NPP). GPP of an ecosystem is the rate of capture of solar
energy or the total production of biomass. However, plants also use a
significant amount of GPP in respiration.

Thus, NPP is the amount of biomass left after the utilization by plants or the
producers. We can hence say that NPP is the amount which is available for
the consumption to herbivores and decomposers. Secondary productivity
means the rate of absorption of food energy by the consumers.

2. Decomposition

Decomposition is an extremely oxygen-requiring process. In the process of

decomposition, decomposers convert the complex organic compounds of
detritus into inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, water and
nutrients.

Detritus is the remains of the dead plant such as leaves, bark, flowers and
also the dead remains of the animals including their faecal matter. The steps
involved in the process of decomposition are fragmentation, leaching,
catabolism, humification and mineralization.

In the process of fragmentation, detritivores break down the detritus into

smaller particles. In the process of leaching, water-soluble inorganic
nutrients descend down into the soil and settle as unavailable salts.

Under the process of catabolism, bacterial and fungal enzymes reduce

detritus into simpler inorganic substances. Humification and mineralization
processes take place during the decomposition of soil and not detritus.

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The process of humification leads to the accumulation of humus which
undergoes decomposition at a very slow rate. In the process of
mineralization, the humus gets further degraded by microbes and inorganic
nutrients are released.

3. Energy flow

Energy flows in a single direction. Firstly, plants capture solar energy and
then, transfer the food to decomposers. Organisms of different trophic levels
are connected to each other for food or energy relationship and thus form a
food chain.

Energy Pyramid is always upright because energy flows from one trophic
level to the next trophic level and in this process, some energy is always lost
as heat at each step.

4. Nutrient Cycling

Nutrient cycling refers to the storage and movement of nutrient elements

through the various components of the ecosystem. There are two types of
Nutrient cycling, gaseous and sedimentary.

For Gaseous cycle (i.e. nitrogen, carbon), atmosphere or hydrosphere is the

reservoir whereas for the sedimentary cycle (i.e. phosphorus) Earth’s crust is
the reservoir.

Components of environment: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and

biosphere

Environment consists of mainly four components- lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and

atmosphere.

The understanding of '-sphere- in this situation means 'to surround or encompass'

The following help us understand the mean of the four spheres :

• Lithosphere - litho referring to rocks and minerals or land

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 • Hydrosphere - hydro referring to water
• Biosphere - bio referring to life
• Atmosphere - atmo referring to air

1.
Lithosphere (Land)

It is believed the lithosphere evolved about 4.6 billion years ago. The lithosphere refers to
the solid, rocky crust that covers the entire planet. The lithosphere is made up of all the hard
and solid land mass on the earth’s surface, the semi-solid rocks (molten materials)
underneath the earth crust, and the liquid rocks in the inner core of the earth. The surface of
the lithosphere is uneven as it is characterized by various landform features. Some of the
landforms include mountains like the Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Vesuvius in Italy,
deep valleys within the mountain ranges, huge plains like the ones in Texas and Brazil,

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extensive plateaus like Bolivian plateau in South America and the Colorado plateau of the
United States, and hills like the black hills.

The liquid, semi-solid, and solid land components of the lithosphere form layers that are
chemically and physically different. This is why the lithosphere is further divided into sub-
spheres namely the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. The crust is
made of loose soil and rocks. The mantle is made of dense rock made up of nickel and iron
in the form of silicate rocks and its lower part is semi-solid (partially molten) rocks.

The outer core is made up of liquid (purely molten) rock materials. The inner core is the
centre of the earth which is purely made of very hot and liquid iron and nickel. The rock
materials are divided into three primary categories based on how they are formed
namely igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks.

• Igneous rocks – igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of hot molten rock also
known as magma. When the hot magma cools it begins to harden meaning once it
had fully cooled it create what is known to be an igneous rock.
• Sedimentary rocks – sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks. When
rocks erode and mix with other dirt, clay and particles then settle together the mix
together to form a sedimentary rock.
• Metamorphic rocks – Metamorphic rocks are formed by heat and / or pressure from
pre-existing rocks.

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The earth’s surface is composed into two types of lithospheres. There are known as the
oceanic and continental lithospheres.

The oceanic lithosphere includes the uppermost layers of mantle which is topped with a thin
yet heavy oceanic crust. This is where the hydrosphere and lithosphere meet.
The continental lithosphere include the uppermost layers of mantle which is topped with a
thick yet light continental crust. This is where the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere
meet the lithosphere.

2. Hydrosphere (Water)

The hydrosphere refers to the most important resource which is water. The hydrosphere
includes all forms of water i.e; all the gaseous, liquid, and solid water of the planet earth.
The hydrosphere stretches all the way from the Earth’s surface downward numerous miles
into the lithosphere and high above the crust into the atmosphere. Most of the water in the
atmosphere is in gaseous form and as it rises higher into the atmosphere it condenses to
form clouds which fall back on earth as precipitation.

All the water in the hydrosphere is always in motion just like the atmospheric gases. The
natural earth features depicting the hydrosphere are the rivers, streams, lakes, seas, oceans
and the water vapor. Glaciers, which are the slowly moving masses of ice, are also part of
the hydrosphere.

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Plant and animal organisms rely on the hydrosphere for their survival as water is essential.
The hydrosphere is also home to many plants and animals and it believed that the
hydrosphere covers approximately 70% of the earth’s surface. 97% of all earth’s water is
salty. Oceans carry most of the salty water while the majority of lakes and rivers carry fresh
water. The earth’s temperature is highly influenced by the hydrosphere.
Very low temperatures are associated with icebergs, glaciers or icecaps; low to moderate
temperatures are associated with the common types of precipitation like snow, rain, drizzle,
sleet or hails; and high temperatures are tied to dry and hot conditions and evaporation. The
glaciers, icebergs, and icecaps are also categorically called the cryosphere.

3. Biosphere (Living Things)

All the living things in the planet are categorized under the biosphere. In this view, the
biosphere includes all of the animals, plants, and microorganisms of earth. Humans as well
belong to this group. Most of the living organisms are found from up to three meters below
ground to thirty meters above it and also in the to 200 meters of the ocean and seas. The
entire ecological communities within the physical surrounding of the earth are within the
umbrella of living things (biosphere). The biosphere could not survive if it wasn't for the
other spheres as all organisms need water from the hydrosphere, minerals for the lithosphere
and gases from the atmosphere. These ecological communities interact together with the
physical aspects of the earth including the hydrosphere, lithosphere, and the atmosphere.

Collectively, these ecological communities are made reference to as biomes. Deserts,

forests, grasslands, aquatic, tundra, and chaparral are the six main biomes that are present
in the biosphere. The living things on earth interact with each other in various ways, which
is well elaborated under the trophic levels of food chain – how energy is transferred in
ecological systems.

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 4. Atmosphere (Air)

All the air in the atmosphere makes up the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a mixture of
nitrogen (about 78%), oxygen (about 21%), and other gasses (about 1%) such as carbon
dioxide (0.039%), argon (0.93%) and the rest are trace gases (krypton, neon, helium , and
xenon). The higher the atmosphere, the thinner it becomes and this trait gradually moves
towards space. The atmosphere extends all the way from the earth’s crust to more than 6200
miles (10,000 kilometers) above the earth’s surface into space.

The atmosphere is divided into four layer troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and
thermosphere. The bottom layer of the atmosphere is known as the troposphere. The
troposphere is where the weather happens. It is the warmest near the Earth because of the
heat rising from the earth’s surface but it becomes colder with altitude. This layer is
separated from the next by what is known as tropopause. The tropopause is the point in
which temperatures will begin to change due to the increase of altitude.
Above the tropopause is the stratosphere. The stratosphere is where there large
concentration of ozone gas is found. The ozone gasses are essential as they absorb a large
percent of radiant solar energy, protecting the earth from harmful ultra violet rays also
known as UV. The coldest of spheres is known as the mesosphere this is where the water
vapor often freezes to create clouds that are purely made of ice. The mesosphere is separated
from the thermosphere by the mesopause.
The topmost layer is known as the thermosphere, this is where many satellites circle the
earth. Due to the thin air and proximity of the sun, the temperatures in the thermosphere
tend to rapidly increase and decrease.

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