Lesson 3: THE DATA AND DATA COLLECTION

What is data?
Your data is all the information that you will gather throughout your
research.
How do we collect our qualitative data?
One way to collect qualitative data is to gather your data from different
sources of information. Some of these sources can include books, encyclopedias,
websites and first- hand information from people.
There are two classifications of data based on their use and source.
PRIMARY DATA refers to first-hand information based on actual experiences or
observations. This kind of data is more reliable to use because it is gathered by the
actual researchers. Say you want to ask people in the community if they agree to a
certain law that is being implemented by the local government. Their answers can
be considered as primary data.
Examples of primary data includes: data taken personally through interview,
personally observing people to get visual data.
SECONDARY DATA are data that are gathered from secondary sources, meaning it
is not you that have obtained the information but rather, it comes from previous
research, audio recordings or books. One advantage of secondary data is that it is
readily available to use, comparing it to primary data where you have to gather the
information yourself.
Examples of secondary data includes: information from your barangay census on
the number of population in the area
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
These are the tools that you need to use so that you can gather your primary data
when you conduct your research. You can even choose one or more instruments to
use.
The important thing is that you are knowledgeable to use these in such a way that it
will not become a hindrance in completing your research.
1. Interview
In qualitative research, doing interviews is the most common type of instrument
that is being used. Interviews are done by having a set of questions to your
respondents and letting them answer as truthfully as possible. There are mainly
three types of interview:
• Structured Interview- this type of interview has a set of predetermined
questions that are ready to use. If you are using a structured interview as your
instrument to gather data, take note that you should not ask beyond what is written
in your interview questions.
• Unstructured Interview- this type of interview is the opposite of structured
interview. You are not required to make a set of pre-made questions, but rather
make an OUTLINE or what kind of questions you want to ask your respondents.
Dawson (2002) calls this type of interview as life history interview. That is because
you want to understand the point of view of your respondents, hence it is not
advisable to use a pre-made questions. You want them to tell you a story, your
respondents are free to talk about what they want to share with a little guide
question from you as a researcher.
• Semi-structured Interview- this type of interview is a mix of structured and
unstructured interview. It may be one of the most common types of interviews. You
have to prepare a set of questions; however, you are also free to ask to follow up
questions to your respondents if you want to clarify something or add information
that is not available to you. This type of interview is also flexible that is why it is
preferred to be used by most researchers.
2. Observations
Another data gathering instrument that is being used most in ethnography is
observations. This happens when a researcher observes and takes notes of the
behavior of people that they want to be a part of their research. There are three
types of observations:
Naturalistic Observation- this happens when a researcher observes the behavior
of a group of people in their natural setting. For example, you want to observe the
behavior of students inside a classroom without putting any external disturbances
on them then you are using naturalistic observation.
Participative Observation- this observation happens when a researcher takes
part on the activities of the group of people that they are observing. Say for
example you want to study the daily routine of a Lumad community. To have a
better understanding of what their everyday activities are, you as a researcher
decided to join a community so that you can immerse yourself in their daily life. This
is utilizing participative observation.
Non-naturalistic Observation- this type of observation happens when you take
your respondents out of their natural environment and put them in an environment
of your choice. You observe how people behave when they are not in their usual
settings. One situation for this is taking a group of high school students and letting
them attend one or two college classes where you must observe their learning
behaviors. Non-naturalistic observation is where you as a researcher decides what
is the “ideal” environment for you to complete your research.
3. Questionnaires
Questionnaires are also one of the most common types of instruments that is being
used by qualitative researchers. This is somewhat similar to interviews based on the
format of questions that is being used. There are three types of questionnaires:
Closed-ended questionnaires- this type of questionnaire is similar to a structured
interview. This is mostly used when you want to conduct surveys on your
respondents. This is mostly for statistical purposes and the questions are already
prepared for your respondents to answer. These types of questionnaires usually
have boxes for the respondents to put a check mark.
Open-ended questionnaires- unlike close-ended questionnaires, this type of
questionnaire leaves a blank space for the respondents to give their point of view
about a specific question.
Combination of both- this type of questionnaire combines both the close-ended and
open-ended questionnaires. For example, you may want to ask a yes or no question
to your respondents and also want them to explain why they have answered yes or
no.
4. Focus Group Discussion
This type of data gathering instrument focuses on groups of people being
interviewed at the same time. This relies on the respondents to give a discussion
amongst themselves on the questions that you, the researcher, give. You will serve
as the moderator or facilitator. Put three or more people around a table and give
them guide questions for them to discuss among themselves. Your role as the
researcher and facilitator is to take note of their discussions
Qualitative interviews should allow the interviewee to speak freely and offer in-
depth and lengthy responses through techniques used singularly or in combination.
Possible techniques include the following:
• Funneling—beginning the interview with general and broad (nonthreatening)
opening questions and then narrowing down to topic specifics as the interview
progresses.
• Probing—eliciting further details or seeking clarification. Price (2002) explained an
innovative probing technique called ‘laddered questions.
Appropriate questions are asked in a series leading from the least intrusive
questions to the most intrusive. This technique identifies classifications of
questions; questions about ‘actions’ are deemed to be the least invasive, through to
questions about ‘philosophy’ (feelings/values/beliefs) as the most invasive.
Storytelling, as another technique, involves asking questions in a manner which
encourages storytelling and more elaborate answers; for example, ‘Tell me about
when you last experienced…’
• Paraphrasing—repeating what the participant has said, without changing the
meaning of what has been said; assisting understanding and clarity; and acting as a
further prompt.

Lesson 4: GATHERING YOUR DATA

There are several steps in the observation process as discussed by Creswell (2007).
● Select where you want to conduct your observation. This can be a classroom,
community or a home where you want to observe the different behavior of the
participants for your research. To do this, you need to make a communication letter
to the concern authorities so that you will be allowed to have access to a particular
place of observation.
Note: it is important to ask permission to who is in-charge of a particular place
where you will conduct your observation. Some place may not allow you to take
pictures or record videos, therefore, it is important to make a formal letter to avoid
unnecessary problems.
● Find the means to gather your observed data. This can include recording devices
like cameras or phones or the more traditional recording devices like taking down
notes on what you, as the researcher, have observed first-hand.
● Take your time to write down the important details. You may be overwhelmed the
number of things that you will be observing. Try to focus on the important details
that relate to your research question. Make sure that you have your field notes with
you where you will need to write the things that can be useful for your research.
● What kind of observation will you be using? Will it be a naturalistic observation?
Non-naturalistic? Or participative observation? You need to have a clear indication
on what will be your role as an observer.
● Politely thank the participants.
How do we conduct a proper interview?
• Find out what type of interview you will be using. If you think that there is still
lacking data from your observation, try to find out if you may need to use other
interview methods so that you can gather more information for your research. You
may choose to use either structured, unstructured, or semi-structured interview.
• Secure a letter of communication to the people that you want to interview. With
the same protocol for the observation method, you need to have a formal letter
asking for permission to conduct an interview with the participants.
• Make sure that you have your interview questions. Do not forget to prepare your
guide questions before conducting a proper interview. These guide questions should
be based on your research questions so that you can get all the information that
you will need for your study.
• Have the right equipment. Make sure that you have audio recording devices that
are fully charged. You cannot take note of every answer of the participants so it’s
better to have devices that can record the exact answer of your participant.
• Let the participant choose where they want the interview to be conducted.
• Politely thank the participants afterwards.
How to establish a good relationship and communication with your participants?
• Treat your participants with respect.
• Wear proper and formal outfit during the interview.
• Maintain eye contact and do not be afraid to engage in a conversation with your
participant.
• Do not ask personal questions that are not related to your research.
• Do not forget to thank them for their time and participation.

LESSON 5: INFER PATTERNS AND THEMES

FROM THE GATHERED DATA
THE PATTERN, THEME, and CODE
A code in qualitative inquiry is most often a word phrase which symbolically
defines a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a
portion of language-based or visual data. This data can compose of interview
transcripts, participant observation field notes, journals, documents, literature,
artifacts, photographs, video, websites, e-mail and correspondence. A pattern is
something that happens in a regular and repeated way. A theme is generated when
similar issues and ideas expressed by participants within qualitative data are
brought together by the researcher into a single category or cluster. There are two
strategies on how to infer data. These are thematic analysis and qualitative data
analysis (QDA). But we will focus on thematic analysis.
There are 6 steps in thematic analysis. We will discuss in detail in each step.
1. Familiarization with the data: This phase involves reading and re-reading the
data, to become immersed and intimately familiar with its content.
2. Coding - this phase involves generating succinct labels (codes) that identify
important features of the data that might be relevant to answering the research
question. It involves coding the entire dataset, and after that, collating all the codes
and all relevant data extracts, together for later stages of analysis.
3. Searching for Themes. This phase involves examining the codes and collated
data to identify significant broader patterns of meaning (potential themes). It then
involves collating data relevant to each candidate theme, so that you can work with
the data and review the viability of each candidate theme.
4. Reviewing themes. This phase involves checking the candidate themes against
the data set, to determine if they tell a convincing story of the data, and one that
answers the research question. In this phase, themes are typically refined, which
sometimes involves them being split, combined, or discarded.
5. Defining and naming themes. This phase involves developing a detailed
analysis of each theme, working out the scope and focus of each theme,
determining the “story” of each. It also involves deciding on an informative name
for each theme.
6. Writing Up. This final phase involves weaving together the analytic narrative
data and extracts and contextualizing the analysis in relation to existing literature.

VERBATIM TRANSLATION THEME

1. [Link] ka nkarecover [Link] did you recover RECOVERED
sa nangyari sa Marawi after the siege?

P: Para sa akin, P: For me, I have

nakaricover rako sa recovered from what
nangyari sa Marawi. happened in Marawi ever
Magmula nung tumira since we started to live in
kami dito sa Auntie ko, my auntie because we
mas napalapit kami sa became closer, and we
isa’t isa nasanay din sa started to get used to the
pamumuhay dito. way of living here.

2.I. May nagbago ba sa [Link] there any changes in SEPARATION

pamilya ninyo magmula your family ever since
nung nangyari yun? that happened?

P: Oo, kasi nagka hiwa P: Yes, my family got

hiwalay kaming pamilya separated because of
nang dahil doon. what happened
Here is an example of a transcribed result of an interview conducted in Clarin National High
School to displaced learners during the Marawi siege. They were able to come up with varied themes
depending on the question asked. This is a result based on a one-on-one interview.

Qualitative data analysis is an ongoing and cyclical process which includes

identification, examination, and interpretation of certain patterns and themes in the
data. It determines how these patterns and themes help answer the research
questions.
This part will guide you on how to make this task easy. Below are the processes in
doing a qualitative analysis.
1. Know your data. Reread your written observations, re-listen the audio recorded
interviews, or re-watch the movie or clip.
2. Focus your analysis. Focus yourself on consistent and or varied responses. For
example:
Your research question is, “Why are some high school students sometimes late for
school?” Common responses would be school’s distance, waking up late, tons of
chores prior to going to school, sleeping late, etcetera.
3. Do coding. Always consult your research questions or you might end up coding
unnecessary information. Coding is simply categorizing the data and reducing them.
4. Clean your data. Go through your data once more if there are data errors.
5. Identify meaningful patterns and themes. Identifying meaningful patterns
and the theme is the heart and soul of the entire qualitative data analysis. In this
stage, you can look at the data
6. Interpret your data. After analyzing, coding, and organizing the data,
identifying the patterns and themes, you are now ready to interpret your data. In
interpreting the data, you will synthesize your tables to a paragraph.
Here is another example of a transcribed result of an interview during the Marawi
siege. They were able to come up with varied theme depending on the questions
asked. This is a result based on one-on-one interview.

VERBATIM TRANSLATION THEME

I: Para sayo, may I: How about you, there
nagbago ba? any changes? STRONG FAITH

P: Para sa akin,hindi. Kasi P: For me, it’s no,

mas lumakas yung because my faith in God
pananampalataya ko sa became even stronger
Panginoon.
I: Anong natutunan mo I: What have you learned NOT NEGLECTING
matapos ang nangyari? after what happened?

VERBATIM TRANSLATION THEME

P: Yung natutunan ko P: I have learned that, THE CULTURAL PRACTICE
ay,kahit nasa Christian even though you’re in a
area ka,wag mo dapat non-Muslim area, you
kalimutan ang relihiyon shouldn’t neglect the
mo at ang mga praktiks practice of your religion
niyo sa relihiyon
I: Paano mo I: How would you help OFFER THEME A JOB
matutulungan yung mga those people who are also
katulad mong nakaranas experiencing the same?
ng hirap?
P: I want to help them
P: Gusto kong tulungan find a job so that they can
sila sa pamamaraan start their life over again.
natulungan silang
maghanap ngtrabaho
para mkapagsimula ulit
sa pamumuhay nila.

Extracted from an unpublished research paper conducted by Ms. Cristy Dablo

of the Division of Misamis Oriental is the narrated experience of teenagers realizing
the inevitable pregnancy. The research is entitled, “TEENAGE PREGNANCY AND ITS
INTERVENTIONS: MINIMIZING FUTURE RISKS AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS”.
There were three central themes which emerged based on the interviews with the
five (5) respondents experiences that cherished relationships as substantial and
tough acquisition of love in the acceptance of being pregnant at an early age
towards successful adjustment. The three central themes are the following:
(1) Life’ turning point: a baby bump, (2) role changing: new set of responsibilities,
and (3) Glint of hope: a blessing in disguise.
Choose which themes best fit each table.
Table 1: Experiences knowing that you are pregnant Theme: _______________

R1 “Kanang nahadlok ko kay basin di ko pananagutan sa akong uyab,pero

mas nahadlok ko nga basin dili madawat sa akong ginikanan samot na
nga dili sila ganahan sa ako uyab”

{I’m afraid that my boyfriend won’t carry the responsibility, but I am

more afraid of my parents not accepting me for they don’t like my
boyfriend}
R2 “Nahadlok ko gayon ga to the point nga ngplano ko nga ipalaglag ang
bata nga naa sa ako tiyan tungod ky wala nay ginikanan na akong
madoulan sa akong pagburos og ngplano pod ko maghikog na lng”.

{I am so afraid and reach to the point of aborting the baby’s life inside
my tummy,since I don’t have the parents to turn to. With that, I
planned to commit suicide.}

In Table2 and Table 3, choose which theme that best fit either (1) life's turning
point; a baby bump, (2) role changing: new set of responsibilities, and (3) glint of
hope: a blessing in disguise.

R1 “Karon ky ok na kayo ko,naa akong pamilya nga nagsupport og alaga

sa akoa”.
{Today I am much okay. I have my family that supports and take care
of me}.
R2 “Karon na feel nako ang support sa akong pamilya. Ila kong gialagaan
kay unsaon paman daw nila og kasuko kung naana. Karonginatabngan
ko nila maamunsaon pag maanak na baby”.
{I now felt the support of my family. They take care of me coz how are
they going to get angry when it's already. For now, they’re helping me
to prepare for the coming of the baby}
Table 2: Adopting your life knowing that you are pregnant Theme:
__________
Table 3: The present condition Theme: ___________________________

R1 “Dako gayod kayo ang kabag ohan labi na mglaag kay buntis bya,sige
rakatulgon and tapulan na mglakaw lakaw,na ana laing obligasyon ang
baby sa tyan”
{A lot of changes happened especially roaming around oops I’m
pregnant, always sleepy and lazy to walk around, have an obligation on
the baby in my tummy}
R2 “Nag attempt kopaglaglag sa bata kay nglibog ko unsaon nibut afriend
nag ingon na ayaw kay bunga na sainyong love and a blessing kay dili
mkaanak”
{I attempted to abort the baby for I got confused on this, but a friend
told me not to do it for this is the fruit of your love and a blessing since
not all can bear a child}

Lesson 6: Draws conclusions from patterns and themes

Conclusions
The conclusion is intended to help the reader appreciate why the research
should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is a
synthesis of key points. For most essays, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient
for a conclusion; although in some cases, a two- or three-paragraph conclusion may
be required (USC Libraries, 2014).
You need to draw together the threads of research to arrive at some general
conclusions. In other words, you summarize the ideas of the research in terms of
research problem, or objectives and tie up both ends neatly. The conclusions are
drawn by logical inference from findings (Mutai, 2001).
The conclusion culminates the research report and is of utmost importance to
one’s readers because it answers the questions that sparked the collected data and
its analysis in the first place. In concluding one’s report, it is important to discuss
the practical application and implications of one’s findings in the real world.
Although one is supposed to have interpreted evidence at every step of one’s
analysis, one’s conclusions pull the strands together in a broader perspective and
indicate possible action, where appropriate (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).
In the main text of the conclusion section, one needs to draw together the
threads of the research to arrive at some general conclusions and, perhaps, suggest
some ways forward. Rather than let the report fizzle out as it reaches the end, this
part of the report should be constructive and positive. Conclusions should not
contain any ideas not previously raised in the report. It should state in unqualified
terms what the findings are. The findings should then be related to other evidences
or hypotheses as described in the main body, including a comparison with other
similar studies. Where appropriate, a variety of options arising from the study
should be explained. The content of the conclusion logically precedes it. In tying
these materials together, the conclusion can perform the three functions, as follows:
1) Recapitulate the ideas of the paper: This is done in the manner where the
researcher returns to the first paragraph or so, review, summarize and ties up both
ends neatly.
2) Extend a challenge: This is usually reserved for the problem-solving paper.
Such a conclusion may call on the reader himself to help make the solution to take
effect by telling him/her what to do.
3) Draw inferences: If opposing ideas have been presented, the conclusions may
challenge the reader to accept one or other ideas, or at least to consider their
relative value (Mutai, 2001).
Problems to Avoid in Making Conclusions
The following problems should be avoided in writing the conclusion (Ebrahim,
2018):
1) Failure to be concise: The conclusion section should be concise and to the
point. Conclusions that are too long have unnecessary details. The conclusion
section is not the place for details about the methodology or results. Although one
should give a summary of what was learned from the research, this summary
should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the
implications, evaluations, insights, and others that one makes.
2) Failure to comment on larger or more significant issues: In the
introduction, one’s task is to move from general (the field of study) to specific (the
research problem). However, in the conclusion, one’s task is to move from specific
(the research problem) back to general or field – i.e., how the research contributes
new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature. In other words, the
conclusion is where one places the study research within a larger context. 3) Failure
to reveal problems and negative results: Negative aspects of the research process
should never be ignored. Problems, drawbacks, and challenges encountered during
the study should be included as a way of qualifying the overall conclusions. If one
encountered negative results of findings that are validated outside the research
context in which they were generated, one must report them in the results section
of the paper. In the conclusion, use the negative results as an opportunity to explain
how they provide information in which future research can be based on.
4) Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned: In order to be
able to discuss how the research fits back into the field of study and possibly the
world at large, one needs to summarize it briefly and directly. Often, this element of
the conclusion is only a few sentences long.
5) Failure to match the objectives of the research: Often, research objectives
change while the research is being carried out. This is not a 5 problem unless one
forgets to go back and refine the original objectives in the introduction. As these
changes emerge, they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what
one was trying to accomplish in the research and not what one thought might be
accomplished when one began.

Recommendations
One’s summary and conclusions should lead logically to one’s
recommendations. Recommendations must be consistent with the purpose of the
study, its objectives, the evidence presented by the data, and the interpretations
given. Recommendations should be practical and achievable (Mugenda & Mugenda,
2003).
The recommendations concerning the action to be taken follow the
conclusions. Where recommendations involve policy decisions, state them
completely as possible including who should do what, when and why (Mutai, 2001).
Common recommendations that researchers often make include the following:
1) Areas of further research: Emphasizing the questions in the study that
remain unanswered and therefore ought to be explored further.
2) Methodological issues: These could be addressed and refined to
improve future research in the areas of study.
3) Actions that should be taken to address the problem based on the
research findings: Solving specific problems could involve designing and
implementing an intervention of a project (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).

Writing the References

As per the considerations of research ethics, the researchers should identify
and acknowledge various sources they have used in their work/write up.
Referencing is a system used by the academicians to indicate the source of the
ideas, theories, quotes, facts or any other evidence, data, and information that have
been used for any write up or assignment. It is an essential part of any scientific
writing and one must do this in all the academic assignments. It is the accepted way
of giving credit to the ideas and evidence on which one’s argument is based.
References are listed in an organized, structured, and consistent way, at the end of
the write up/assignment. In thesis, the list of references appears before the
appendices.
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
Vancouver style
Most journals in medical sciences use the Vancouver system to write the
references. In this system, the citation in the text is done by reference number. In
the list, the references are in a numeric order (Arabic) in which they are first cited in
the manuscript. References are numbered consecutively in the order that they are
first mentioned in the text. Each reference number is placed in parentheses or
superscripted throughout the text, tables, and legends.
In Vancouver style, the names of all the authors are written when there are
six authors. If there are more than six authors, “et al.” is used after writing the first
six authors.
While using the Vancouver style, if an author’s name is used in the text, it is
mandatory to use the citation number as well. For example, “as Kaur emphasized
the high prevalence of depression in elderly...”
APA style
The APA style is a structured format for all sorts of academic writings,
including the journal articles, books, and other commentaries devised by the
American Psychological Association (APA) Table 1. The style guide titled as
‘Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association’ was first published in
1929 as a seven-page document. After eighty years, the sixth edition of the manual
was published in 2009. This style is very widely used in social and behavioral
sciences like psychology, sociology, social work, nursing, and education.
While citing reference in text, where one needs to cite one work by one
author, the following format is used: “Author’s Surname (year)”. For example,
“Sharma (2014) reported that 43% of antenatal females experience intimate
partner violence.” When the citation has three, four, or five authors, cite all authors
when the reference appears for the first time; in the subsequent citations, include
only the surname of the first author followed by “et al.” and the year. For example:
“Kaur, Sharma, Bakshi and Sinha (2012) reported high prevalence of stress
among nurses…” (used as first citation in the text) “Kaur et al. (2012) also found…”
(used in the subsequent citation per paragraph thereafter).
For a web page with no author, cite the first few words of the title and the
year using double quotation marks around the title. The government documents,
books, technical/research reports, or brochures can also be considered for writing
the references. If a person is named on the title page, use him or her as author. If
no person is named, use the government agency, department, or branch as a group
author.
The reference list is written at the end of the article. The list provides the necessary
information required to identify and retrieve each source. In APA style, the
reference list should include only those references which are actually used in the
preparation of article. Hence, the APA style requires the use of reference list, not
bibliography. The order of the reference list is prepared by arranging all entries in
alphabetical order by the surname of the first author followed by the initials of the
author’s given name. The rule is to alphabetize letter by letter. When there are
several works by the same author, they are to be arranged by year of publication;
the earliest comes first. For example, “Sharma N (2010)” precedes “Sharma N
(2014)”. One author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the
same surname even if the multiple-author work was published earlier. For example,
“Kaur (2014)” shall precede “Kaur, Singh, and Sharma (2010)”. This style mandates
writing the names of all the authors in the reference list up to seven authors. If
there are more than seven authors, the following format is used:
Kaur, S., Sharma, N., Sharma, S., Thakur, M., Agnihotri, N. Thakur M,.…Saini, S.
(2015). Effectiveness of peer evaluation in nursing training. Education and Research
Journal, 6, 167-177. For government agency with no author, it can be written as U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, 2004.