Module 2, Unit 2.

3
Content: Truss structures

Unit Objective: After attending the class the student should be able to

• Analyze the statics of a 2D or 3D truss

• Calculate the forces in different members by method of joints

Unit Summary:
A truss is a large framework made of small bars (preferably of L,H, I cross-
section). These small bars are joined at their ends by gusset plates (clamping plates on
two sides) and rivets. In some trusses, the joints may be formed by welding. Trusses in
3D are called space trusses or roof trusses. Examples of well-known space truss
structures are the Eiffel tower, glass pyramid of Louvre and Howrah bridge. On the other
hand, small bridges (foot bridges) and simple supports (k-trusses in railway platforms)
where all the members of the truss lie in a single plane or the overall space truss structure
can be idealized as a set of 2D trusses lying in parallel so that the load can be equally
divided and distributed over the parallel planes are called plane trusses. Likewise, trusses
may be static or mobile (e.g., crane, Ferris wheel).

Eiffel tower and its view from bottom Ferris wheel and Glass pyramid (Louvre)
Photo: 27 June 2009 © A.K. Samantaray and P.M. Pathak
 For analytical simplification, the gusset plates or weld joints are modeled as pin
joints and the forces are considered only at the joints. With this modeling idealization,
each member is considered as a two force member subjected to either tension or
compression. Complicated computer models show that the error due to idealization is
limited to 2 to 5% in most cases.

≈
Idealization of joints in a truss

Some idealized plane truss structures with loads applied at joints

When a set of two force members are joined by pins then they form a just rigid structure
when the degrees of freedom is zero, i.e., no relative motion is possible between members
(except for elastic deformations). For a plane truss, the basic element for constructing a
just rigid frame is a triangle formed by three members. The next just rigid structure
requires two more members and a joint to add another triangle to the existing one. From
this analysis, a 2D truss is called a simple truss (i.e., just rigid) if the following relation is
satisfied:
m = 2 j −3
where m is the number of members and j is the number of joints. The corresponding
condition for a 3D truss to be simple (where the basic building block is a pyramid made
of 6 members and three more members and a joint have to added in each step for creating
the next rigid structure) is given as
m = 3 j − 6.
A simple truss is usually statically determinate.
Since the members are assumed as two force members, which are replaced by two
equal and opposite force, the only equations for determining forces in the members are
obtained from equilibrium of different joints. Forces in each member can be calculated by
using method of joints.
In method of joints the forces experienced by members are calculated by
sequentially considering equilibrium of joints. Usually, the external reaction forces are
calculated first by considering the entire truss as a rigid body. In the next step, a suitably
chosen joint is considered whose equilibrium equations contain no more than 2 unknowns
for a plane truss or 3 unknowns for a space truss. Once these unknowns are calculated,
one moves to the next joint (solvable joint) having the similar properties. This process is
continued until the desired unknowns are determined. However, it may not be always
possible to initially locate joints with 2 or 3 unknowns, respectively, for plane and space
trusses. Those complicated problems have to be handled carefully (a lot of algebraic
manipulations may be necessary) or the method of sections, discussed later, may be
initially used solve a few critical unknowns after which one can proceed with the usual
method of joints.
For example, to solve for the forces in members of the truss
shown in the figure, one has to first solve the reactions, i.e.,
Ay , Dx and Dy , by considering the whole truss as a rigid
body. Then one has to assume the nature of forces in the two
force members, i.e., each member should be assumed either as
tensile or compressive member. Note that if the solution shows
the value of a force to be negative for a particular member then
it means that the nature of force assumed for that member is
incorrect; the correct nature is the opposite one. This
correction should be left till the end, i.e. till all the forces are
calculated, rather than invoking it in between the steps.
For the truss shown in the figure, the
equilibrium of the joints can be considered
in the following sequence:
(1) D, E, A (or C), C (or A)
(2) B, A, E (or C), C (or E)
As an example, if all members are initially
assumed to be tensile (i.e, the members try
to pull the pins) then the free bodies of the
pins would be as shown.

It is obvious from the free body of pin B that FAB should be negative, i.e., FAB = − F1 . This
means AB is not a tensile member, but actually a compression member. However, this
correction should be left till the end and then the corrected magnitude of the forces and
their nature (either ‘C’ or ‘T’) should be marked on the figure of the truss itself.
 Module 2, Unit 2.4
Content: Truss structure solution by method of sections
Unit Objective: After attending the class the student should be able to
• Calculate the forces in selected members of a truss by method of sections
• Identify the zero-force members in a truss
Unit Summary:
When the force in a particular member lying well inside a large truss is required, the
afore-mentioned method of joints turns out to be analytically more expensive. Method of
section can, in this case, be used. In this method, the truss is split into two separate bodies
by cutting across various members along a suitably chosen section (note that the section
may not be a continuous line).

Each section of the truss shall now be considered as independent rigid body and the
equations of equilibrium may be written for them. The forces in required members may
be calculated by considering one cut, if possible. Otherwise the method can be repeated
until the required results are obtained. For example, if the reactions at points A and M are
known then one can take moment about point F in the left side section and find FDG.
Likewise, moment about point D or ∑ Fx = 0 on the entire section can be used to find
FFH. Note that it is possible to get the same result by taking moments about points F and
D on the right side section although the points lie outside the considered part of the rigid
body. The point about which moment is to be taken should be chosen with the aim that
the line of action of all except one of the unknown forces passes through that point.
Very often, one needs to use both method of sections and method of joints to get the
solution as is exemplified below. In order to determine forces in members DH and DJ,
one can either use
• Method of section with cut across section c—c
(moments about point D and C to find FJI and FDJ)
followed by section d—d (moments about points D
and E).
or
• Method of section with cut across section c—c
(moment about point D to find FJI, then about point C
to find FDJ and finally about J to find FCD) or section
d—d followed by method of joint with joint I (to
find FDI) and D (to find FDE and FDH), sequentially.
Other possible combinations can be worked out to get the same results.
In a large truss (especially space trusses) none of the methods discussed so far is effective
to calculate all the forces in various members. In this case, the equilibrium equations for
every joint are written in terms of all the unknowns. The resulting linear algebraic
equations are then solved (by numerical methods). Small computer programs can be
written for this purpose.
In large trusses, it may be often feasible to identify to
so-called zero-force members, i.e., the non-load
carrying members. In the above discussed problem,
there are no horizontal forces at pins A and G and
therefore AJ and HG are zero-force members. Zero
force members can be removed from the truss for the
purpose of analysis, but they cannot be removed from
the actual truss because that will compromise the
rigidity of the structure. Another example truss is
given here. The zero-force members in this truss are
ST, OS, RS, OR, NR, MN, KO, JK, BD, DE, HI and
GH. Students should be asked to reason out the given
results.

As a general rule, if three forces act on a pin out of which two are collinear and the third
is not then the third force must be zero for equilibrium of that pin.
Note that when elastic deformations are considered, the lengths of loaded links change
(shorten under compression or elongate under tension) and consequently the angles
between the different links change. Therefore, the so-called zero-force members end up
carrying some amount of load. However, the final load carried by them is negligibly
small as compared to the rest of the members and thus zero-force assumption based on
statics analysis is a fair enough approximation.
Unit 2.3 problems:
1. Find the forces in members BF, CF and DF of the arched trusses shown in the figure.

Solution:

From the given geometry, it is found that

(FAB = (ABF = (FBC = (BCF
= (FCD = (CDF = (EDF = (DEF = 67.5o.

The free body of the whole system is considered to

determine the reactions.

From symmetry, the vertical reactions at pins A and E

are 15kN each and there is no horizontal reaction at pin A.

Note that although some of the members of the truss are curved they are still two-force
members. We now consider fee body of each joint one by one.

From free body of joint A,

∑ Fy = 0 or 15 − FAB sin 67.5o = 0,
⇒ FAB = 16.236kN.
Likewise,
∑ Fx = 0 or FAF + FAB cos 67.5o = 0,
⇒ FAF = −6.213kN.
From free body of joint B,
∑ Fx = 0 or FAB cos 67.5o − FBF cos 45o − FBC cos 22.5o = 0,
⇒ 0.707 FBF + 0.924 FBC = 6.213kN.
∑F y = 0 or FAB sin 67.5o + FBF sin 45o − FBC sin 22.5o − 10 = 0,
⇒ 0.707 FBF − 0.3827 FBC = −5kN.
Solution of the above gives FBC = 8.581kN and FBF = −2.43kN.
Now considering the free body of pin C,
∑ Fx = 0 or FBC cos 22.5o − FCD cos 22.5o = 0,
⇒ FCD = FBC = 8.581kN.

∑F y = 0 or FBC sin 22.5o + FCD sin 22.5o + FCF − 10 = 0,

⇒ FCF = 10 − 2 FBC sin 22.5o = 3.43kN.

In all the considered free bodies, the initial assumption has been compressive force for
each member. Some of the answers came negative, which means the initial assumption is
wrong for the forces in those members; those members carry tensile force.

Using the symmetry, the forces in the required members are

FBF = FDF = 2.43kN (tension) and FCF = 3.43kN (compression).

2. Find the forces members GH, GJ and CG of the truss shown in the figure. All
dimensions are in millimeters.

Solution:
FBD-I
From the FBD-1, we can write, R Ex = 0 ;

∑M A = 0 or 3 × 2 + 1× 4 + 1× 6 − R Ey × 8 = 0 .

Then, R Ey = 2 kN and R Ay = 4 kN

Let us consider each joint one by one.

From free body of pin A:

∑F y = 0 ⇒ Ay + FAH sin 30o − 1 = 0 ⇒ FAH = −6kN.

∑F x = 0 ⇒ FAH cos 30o + FAB = 0 ⇒ FAB = 5.2kN.
From free body of pin B:

∑F y = 0 ⇒ FBH = 0.
∑F x = 0 ⇒ FBC − FAB = 0 ⇒ FBC = 5.2kN.

From free body of pin H:

∑F x = 0 ⇒ FGH cos 30o + FCH cos 30o − FAH cos 30o = 0.
i.e., FGH + FCH = FAH = −6kN.
∑F y = 0 ⇒ FGH sin 30o − FCH sin 30o − FAH sin 30o − 3 − FBH = 0.
FAH sin 30o + 3
i.e., FGH − FCH = = 0.
sin 30o
Thus, FGH = FCH = −3kN.
From free body of pin G:
∑F X = 0 ⇒ FGH cos 30o − FGJ cos 30o = 0
i.e., FGJ = FGH = −3kN.
∑F Y = 0 , FGC + 1 + FGJ cos 60D + FGH cos 60D = 0
i.e., FGC = 2 kN .

The initial assumption has been tensile force in all members (all member forces act
outward on the joints). Thus, negative results indicate compressive force.

The final results are FGJ = 3kN ( C ) ; FGH = 3kN ( C ) and FGC = 2 kN ( T ) .

3. Find the forces in all members connected to pin F of

the arched trusses shown in the figure. Justify the
surprising results.

Solution:

The free body of the whole system is considered to

determine the reactions.

From ∑ Fx = 0, Ax = 5kN.
Taking moment of the forces about point F,
Ay = E y .
From ∑F y (
= 0, Ay + E y = 10 + 2 × 10 )
2 kN.
Therefore, Ay = E y = 12.07kN.
We now consider fee body of each joint one by one.

From free body of joint A:

∑ Fy = 0 or Ay − FAB sin 67.5o = 0,
⇒ FAB = 13.07kN.
Likewise,
∑ Fx = 0 or Ax − FAF − FAB cos 67.5o = 0,
⇒ FAF = 0kN.

From free body of joint B:

∑F x = 0 or FAB cos 67.5o + (10 − FBF ) cos 45o − FBC cos 22.5o = 0,
⇒ 0.707 FBF + 0.924 FBC = 12.07kN.
∑F y = 0 or FAB sin 67.5o + ( FBF − 10 ) sin 45o − FBC sin 22.5o = 0,
⇒ 0.707 FBF − 0.3827 FBC = −5kN.
Solution of the above gives FBC = 13.07kN and FBF = 0kN.

Now considering the free body of pin C:

∑F x = 0 or FBC cos 22.5o − FCD cos 22.5o = 0,

⇒ FCD = FBC = 13.07kN.

∑F y = 0 or FBC sin 22.5o + FCD sin 22.5o + FCF − 10 = 0,

⇒ FCF = 10 − 2 FBC sin 22.5o = 0kN.

Using the symmetry (or continuing with free body of other joints), the forces in the
required members are FAF = FBF = FCF = FDF = FEF = 0.

The surprising result that all radial members carry

zero force is indeed a concept used in design of many
structures. The truss considered here is an idealization
of a shell structure (See figure). The radial forces are
equivalent forces due to pressure difference between
the inner and outer sides of the shell. In shell
structures, the load is always carried by the outer ring.
Unit 2.4 problems:
1. Kharagpur railway station is famous
for world’s largest platform. The foot
bridge over the railway tracks at
Kharagpur station is supported on K-
trusses (one planar K-truss and two
space K-trusses are marked in the
figure). The planar K-truss supports the
load as shown in the idealized schematic
diagram.
Check if the given structure is a simple
truss. Find the zero-force members and
the forces in members BC and KL.
Solution:
The number of members m =25 and the number of joints j =14. We find m = 2 j − 3
which means that it is a simple truss.
The zero-force members (which can be found from inspection) are members EF and FN.
It has been asked to determine forces in selected members. For this purpose, method of
sections is ideally suitable.
Consider a section as shown in the figure and the free body of
the upper part of the section.

Taking moment about point C,

∑ M C = 0 ⇒20 ×1 + 20 × 2 + FKL × 2 = 0 ⇒ FKL = −30kN.
From ∑F y = 0 , FKL + FBC + 60 = 0 ⇒ FBC = −30kN. This can as well be obtained by
taking moment about point L.
Thus BC and KL are both compression members (the tensile nature of forces initially
chosen in the free body of the section is wrong). The final result should be written as
FKL = FBC = 30kN ( C ) . Note that we did not have to calculate the reactions at the
supports in the beginning. This is a special case. In general, calculation of the support
reactions at the beginning is mandatory.
2. Find the zero force members in the truss
shown in the figure (all geometric dimensions
are given in millimeters). Find the forces in
members GC, GH and GJ of the truss by first
applying method of sections and then following
it up by method of joints.

Solution:
The zero force members are BH and DJ.
FBD-I:
From the FBD-1, we can write, R Ex = 0 ;

∑M A = 0 or 3 × 2 + 1× 4 + 1× 6 − R Ey × 8 = 0 .

Then, R Ey = 2 kN and R Ay = 4 kN

To find the force in member GC, consider the

following section and then the free body of the
right-hand side.

From the FBD of the considered section, ∑M C = 0 gives

FGJ × 4sin 30D − 1× 2 + 2 × 4 = 0 or FGJ = −3kN .

Now consider the free body of the pin G.
From ∑ FX = 0 and symmetry of the angles, FGH = FGJ = −3kN .
From ∑F Y = 0 , FGC +1+FGJ × cos 60D + FGH × cos 60D = 0 or
1
FGC = −2 × ( −3) × − 1 = 2 kN .
2
Thus, FGJ = 3kN ( C ) ; FGH = 3kN ( C ) and FGC = 2 kN ( T ) .