STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS CEE 366
Engr (Mrs) Giwa Z.T
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TYPES OF STRUCTURES
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load. Important
examples related to civil engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers; and in
other branches of engineering, ship and aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels,
mechanical systems, and electrical supporting structures.
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When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the engineer
must account for its safety, esthetics, and serviceability, while taking into consideration
economic and environmental constraints.
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To analyze a structure properly, certain idealizations must be made as to how the
members are supported and connected together. The loadings are determined from
codes and local specifications, and the forces in the members and their displacements
are found using the theory of structural analysis.
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The results of this analysis then can be used to design the structure, accounting for a
more accurate determination of the weight of the members and their size. Structural
design, therefore, follows a series of successive approximations in which every cycle
requires a structural analysis.
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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
It is important for a structural engineer to recognize the various types of elements
composing a structure and to be able to classify structures as to their form and
function.
Structural Elements: Some of the more common elements from which structures are
composed are as follows:
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CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Tie Rods: Structural members subjected to a tensile force are often
referred to as tie rods or bracing struts. Due to the nature of this
load, these members are rather slender and are often chosen from
rods, bars, angles, or channels as shown in Fig.1–1.
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Beams:
Beams are usually straight horizontal members used primarily to
carry vertical loads. Quite often they are classified according to
the way they are supported, as indicated in Fig. 1–2.
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Columns:
Members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive loads
are referred to as columns, Fig. 1–4. Tubes and wide-flange cross sections
are often used for metal columns, and circular and square cross sections
with reinforcing rods are used for those made of concrete. Occasionally,
columns are subjected to both an axial load and a bending moment as
shown in the figure. These members are referred to as beam columns.
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TYPES OF STRUCTURES
The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are
composed is referred to as a structural system. Each system is constructed of one or
more of four basic types of structures. Ranked in order of complexity of their force
analysis, they are as follows:
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1. Trusses
When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is not an important
criterion for design, a truss may be selected. Trusses consist of slender elements,
usually arranged in triangular fashion. Planar trusses are composed of members that
lie in the same plane and are frequently used for bridge and roof support, whereas
space trusses have members extending in three dimensions and are suitable for
derricks and towers.
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Cables and Arches: Two other forms of structures used to span long distances
are the cable and the arch. Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in
tension. They are commonly used to support bridges as shown in Fig.1–6a, and
building roofs. When used for these purposes, the cable has an advantage over
the beam and the truss, especially for spans that are greater than 150 ft (46 m).
Because they are always in tension, cables will not become unstable and
suddenly collapse, as may happen with beams or trusses. Furthermore, the truss
will require added costs for construction and increased depth as the span
increases. Use of cables, on the other hand, is limited only by their sag, weight,
and methods of anchorage.
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The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it has a reverse
curvature to that of the cable. The arch must be rigid, however, in
order to maintain its shape, and this results in secondary loadings
involving shear and moment, which must be considered in its design.
Arches are frequently used in bridge structures, Fig. 1–6b, dome
roofs, and for openings in masonry walls.
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Frames:
Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and
columns that are either pin or fixed connected, Fig.1–7. Like trusses,
frames extend in two or three dimensions. The loading on a frame causes
bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint connections, this structure
is generally “indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis. The strength
of such a frame is derived from the moment interactions between the
beams and the columns at the rigid joints.
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ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE
STRUCTURES
Idealized Structures
An exact analysis of a structure can never be carried out, since estimates always have
to be made of the loadings and the strength of the materials composing the structure.
Furthermore, points of application for the loadings must also be estimated. It is
important, therefore, that the structural engineer develop the ability to model or
idealize a structure so that he or she can perform a practical force analysis of the
members.
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Support Connections: Structural members are joined together in various ways depending on
the intent of the designer. The three types of joints most often specified are the pin connection,
the roller support, and the fixed joint. A pin-connected joint and a roller support allow some
freedom for slight rotation, whereas a fixed joint allows no relative rotation between the
connected members and is consequently more expensive to fabricate. Examples of these joints,
fashioned in metal and concrete, are shown in the figure below. For most timber structures, the
members are assumed to be pin connected, since bolting or nailing them will not sufficiently
restrain them from rotating with respect to each other.
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Idealized models used in structural analysis that represent pinned and fixed supports
and pin-connected and fixed-connected joints are shown in Figs. 2–3a and 2–3b. In
reality, however, all connections exhibit some stiffness toward joint rotations, owing to
friction and material behavior. In this case a more appropriate model for a support
or joint might be that shown in Fig.2–3c. If the torsional spring constant the joint is a
pin, and if the joint is fixed.
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Other types of connections most commonly encountered on coplanar structures are
given in Table 2–1. It is important to be able to recognize the symbols for these
connections and the kinds of reactions they exert on their attached members. This can
easily be done by noting how the connection prevents any degree of freedom or
displacement of the member. In particular, the support will develop a force on the
member if it prevents translation of the member, and it will develop a moment if it
prevents rotation of the member.
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Idealized Structure: Having stated the various ways in which the
connections on a structure can be idealized, we are now ready to discuss
some of the techniques used to represent various structural systems by
idealized models. As a first example, consider the jib crane and trolley
in Fig. 2–5a. For the structural analysis we can neglect the thickness of
the two main members and will assume that the joint at B is fabricated to
be rigid. Furthermore, the support connection at A can be modeled as a
fixed support and the details of the trolley excluded. Thus, the members
of the idealized structure are represented by two connected lines, and
the load on the hook is represented by a single concentrated force F, Fig.
2–5b. This idealized structure shown here as a line drawing can now be
used for applying the principles of structural analysis, which will
eventually lead to the design of its two main members.
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Beams and girders are often used to support building floors. In particular, a
girder is the main load-carrying element of the floor, whereas the smaller
elements having a shorter span and connected to the girders are called beams.
Often the loads that are applied to a beam or girder are transmitted to it by the
floor that is supported by the beam or girder. Again, it is important to be able to
appropriately idealize the system as a series of models, which can be used to
determine, to a close approximation, the forces acting in the members. Consider,
for example, the framing used to support a typical floor slab in a building, Fig.2–
6a.
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Here the slab is supported by floor joists located at even intervals, and these in
turn are supported by the two side girders AB and CD. For analysis it is
reasonable to assume that the joints are pin and/or roller connected to the girders
and that the girders are pin and/or roller connected to the columns. The top view
of the structural framing plan for this system is shown in Fig. 2–6b. In this “graphic”
scheme, notice that the “lines” representing the joists do not touch the girders and
the lines for the girders do not touch the columns. This symbolizes pin- and/ or
roller-supported connections.
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On the other hand, if the framing plan is intended to represent fixed-
connected members, such as those that are welded instead of simple bolted
connections, then the lines for the beams or girders would touch the columns
as in Fig. 2–7.
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TRIBUTARY LOADINGS
When flat surfaces such as walls, floors, or roofs are supported by a structural frame,
it is necessary to determine how the load on these surfaces is transmitted to the various
structural elements used for their support. There are generally two ways in which this
can be done. The choice depends on the geometry of the structural system, the
material from which it is made, and the method of its construction.
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One-Way System: A slab or deck that is supported such that it delivers its
load to the supporting members by one-way action, is often referred to as
a one-way slab. To illustrate the method of load transmission, consider the
framing system shown in Fig.2–11a where the beams AB, CD, and EF rest
on the girders AE and BF. If a uniform load of is placed on the slab, then
the center beam CD is assumed to support the load acting on the tributary
area shown dark shaded on the structural framing plan in Fig. 2–11b.
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Member CD is therefore subjected to a linear distribution of load
of shown on the idealized beam in Fig.2–[Link] reactions on this
beam (2500 lb) would then be applied to the center of the girders
AE(and BF),shown idealized in Fig.2–[Link] this same concept,
do you see how the remaining portion of the slab loading is
transmitted to the ends of the girder as 1250 lb?
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For some floor systems the beams and girders are connected to the
columns at the same elevation, as in Fig.2–12a. If this is the case, the
slab can in some cases also be considered a “one-way slab.” For
example, if the slab is reinforced concrete with reinforcement in only
one direction, or the concrete is poured on a corrugated metal deck,
as in the above photo, then one-way action of load transmission can
be assumed.
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On the other hand, if the slab is flat on top and bottom and is reinforced
in two directions, then consideration must be given to the possibility of
the load being transmitted to the supporting members from either one or
two directions. For example, consider the slab and framing plan in Fig.2–
12b. According to the American Concrete Institute, ACI 318 code, if 𝐿2 >
𝐿2
𝐿1 and if the span ratio ൗ𝐿1 > 2, the slab will behave as a one-way
slab, since as 𝐿1 becomes smaller, the beams AB, CD, and EF provide the
greater stiffness to carry the load.
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TWO-WAY SYSTEM
If, according to the ACI 318 concrete code the support ratio in Fig. 2–12b is
𝐿2
ൗ𝐿1 ≤ 2 the load is assumed to be delivered to the supporting beams
and girders in two directions. When this is the case the slab is referred to as
a two-way slab. To show one method of treating this case, consider the
square reinforced concrete slab in Fig.2–13a,which is supported by four 10-
𝐿2
ft-long edge beams, AB, BD, DC, and CA. Here ൗ𝐿1 = 1. Due to two-way
slab action, the assumed tributary area for beam AB is shown dark shaded
in Fig.2–13b.
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This area is determined by constructing diagonal 45° lines as shown. Hence if a
uniform load of 100 𝑙𝑏ൗ𝑓𝑡 2 is applied to the slab, a peak intensity of
100 𝑙𝑏ൗ𝑓𝑡 2 5𝑓𝑡 = 500 𝑙𝑏ൗ𝑓𝑡 will be applied to the center of beam AB, resulting
in a triangular load distribution shown in Fig. 2–13c. For other geometries that cause
𝐿2
two-way action, a similar procedure can be used. For example, if ൗ𝐿1 = 1.5 it is
then necessary to construct 45° lines that intersect as shown in Fig. 2–14a. A
100 𝑙𝑏ൗ𝑓𝑡 2 loading placed on the slab will then produce trapezoidal and triangular
distributed loads on members AB and AC, Fig.2–14b and 2–14c, respectively.
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EXAMPLE
The flat roof of the steel-frame building shown in Figure (a) is intended to support a
total load of 2 𝑘𝑁ൗ𝑚2 over its surface. Determine the roof load within region ABCD
that is transmitted to beam BC. The dimensions are shown in Fig.2–16a.
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SOLUTION
𝐿2
In this case 𝐿2 = 5𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿1 = 4𝑚. Since ൗ𝐿1 = 1.25 < 2 we have two-way slab
action. The tributary loading along each edge beam is shown in Fig. 2–16a, where
the lighter shaded trapezoidal area of loading is transmitted to member BC. The
peak intensity of this loading is 2 𝑘𝑁ൗ𝑚2 2𝑚 = 4 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚 . As a result, the
distribution of load along BC is shown in Fig.2–16b.
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PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
The principle of superposition forms the basis for much of the theory of structural
analysis. It may be stated as follows:
The total displacement or internal loadings (stress) at a point in a structure subjected to
several external loadings can be determined by adding together the displacements or
internal loadings (stress) caused by each of the external loads acting separately.
For this statement to be valid it is necessary that a linear relationship exist among the
loads, stresses, and displacements.
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Two requirements must be imposed for the principle of superposition to apply:
1. The material must behave in a linear-elastic manner, so that Hooke’s law is valid,
and therefore the load will be proportional to displacement.
2. The geometry of the structure must not undergo significant change when the loads
are applied, i.e., small displacement theory applies.
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EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
It may be recalled from statics that a structure or one of its members is in equilibrium
when it maintains a balance of force and moment. In general this requires that the
force and moment equations of equilibrium be satisfied along three independent
axes, namely,
σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0; σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0; σ 𝐹𝑧 = 0
σ 𝑀𝑥 = 0; σ 𝑀𝑦 = 0; σ 𝑀𝑧 = 0
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The principal load-carrying portions of most structures, however, lie in a single plane,
and since the loads are also coplanar, the above requirements for equilibrium reduce
to
σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0;
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
σ 𝑀0 = 0
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APPLICATION OF EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
Determine the reactions on the beam shown in Fig.2–29a.
SOLUTION
Free-body diagram. As shown in Fig. 2–29b, the trapezoidal distributed loading is
segmented into a triangular and a uniform load. The areas under the triangle and
rectangle represent the resultant forces. These forces act through the centroid of their
corresponding areas.
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Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at the pins A, B, and C
of the two-member frame shown in Fig.2–32a.
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SOLUTION
Free-Body Diagrams. The free-body diagram of each member is shown in Fig.2–
32b.
Equations of Equilibrium. Applying the six equations of equilibrium in the following
sequence allows a direct solution for each of the six unknowns.
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DETERMINACY AND STABILITY
Determinacy.
The equilibrium equations provide both the necessary and sufficient conditions for
equilibrium. When all the forces in a structure can be determined strictly from these
equations, the structure is referred to as statically determinate. Structures having more
unknown forces than available equilibrium equations are called statically
indeterminate.
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As a general rule, a structure can be identified as being either statically determinate
or statically indeterminate by drawing free-body diagrams of all its members, or
selective parts of its members, and then comparing the total number of unknown
reactive force and moment components with the total number of available equilibrium
equations.
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For a coplanar structure there are at most three equilibrium equations for each part,
so that if there is a total of n parts and r force and moment reaction components, we
have
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Classify each of the beams shown in Fig. 2–19a through 2–19d as statically
determinate or statically indeterminate. If statically indeterminate, report the number
of degrees of indeterminacy. The beams are subjected to external loadings that are
assumed to be known and can act anywhere on the beams.
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Classify each of the pin-connected structures shown in Fig. 2–20a through 2–20d as
statically determinate or statically indeterminate. If statically indeterminate, report
the number of degrees of indeterminacy. The structures are subjected to arbitrary
external loadings that are assumed to be known and can act anywhere on the
structures.
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Classify each of the frames shown in Fig.2–21a and 2–21b as statically determinate
or statically indeterminate. If statically indeterminate, report the number of degrees
of indeterminacy. The frames are subjected to external loadings that are assumed to
be known and can act anywhere on the frames.
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SOLUTION
Unlike the beams and pin-connected structures of the previous examples, frame
structures consist of members that are connected together by rigid joints. Sometimes the
members form internal loops as in Fig.2–[Link] ABCD forms a closed loop. In order
to classify these structures, it is necessary to use the method of sections and “cut” the
loop apart. The free-body diagrams of the sectioned parts are drawn and the frame
can then be classified. Notice that only one section through the loop is required, since
once the unknowns at the section are determined, the internal forces at any point in the
members can then be found using the method of sections and the equations of
equilibrium. 53
A second example of this is shown in Fig.
2–21b. Although the frame in Fig. 2–21c
has no closed loops we can use this same
method, using vertical sections, to classify
it. For this case we can also just draw its
complete free-body diagram. The
resulting classifications are indicated in
each figure.
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STABILITY
To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not only necessary to
satisfy the equations of equilibrium, but the members must also be properly held or
constrained by their supports. Two situations may occur where the conditions for
proper constraint have not been met.
1. Partial Constraints.
2. Improper Constraints.
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In general, then, a structure will be geometrically unstable—that is, it will move slightly
or collapse—if there are fewer reactive forces than equations of equilibrium; or if there
are enough reactions, instability will occur if the lines of action of the reactive forces
intersect at a common point or are parallel to one another.
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Classify each of the structures in Fig.2–25athrough 2–25d as stable or unstable. The
structures are subjected to arbitrary external loads that are assumed to be known.
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ASSIGNMENT
Classify each of the structures as statically determinate, statically indeterminate,
stable, or unstable. If indeterminate, specify the degree of indeterminacy. The
supports or connections are to be assumed as stated.
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Determine the reactions at the supports A and B of the compound beam. There is a
pin at C.
Determine the reactions on the beam. Neglect the thickness of the beam.
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TRUSSES
A truss is a structure composed of slender members joined together at their end
points. The members commonly used in construction consist of wooden struts, metal
bars, angles, or channels. The joint connections are usually formed by bolting or
welding the ends of the members to a common plate, called a gusset plate
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DETERMINACY
For any problem in truss analysis, it should be realized that the total number of
unknowns includes the forces in b number of bars of the truss and the total number of
external support reactions r.
In particular, the degree of indeterminacy is specified by the difference in the
numbers 𝑏 + 𝑟 − 2𝑗
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Classify each of the trusses in Fig. 3–18 as stable, unstable, statically determinate, or
statically indeterminate. The trusses are subjected to arbitrary external loadings that
are assumed to be known and can act anywhere on the trusses.
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CLASSWORK
Classify each of the following trusses as statically determinate, indeterminate, or
unstable. If indeterminate, state its degree.
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