Lecture 2

Dr. Tabbi Wilberforce Awotwe

Room: S2.07
Email: [Link]@[Link]
 Fluids in Motion
(Hydrodynamics): Part 1
Learning outcomes

By the end of the session you will :

• Have knowledge on various types of fluid flow

• Be able to apply continuity and momentum principles in

hydrodynamics

• Gain knowledge and be able to identify the various forces and

moments associated with fluid flow (in Hydrodynamics)
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow

Natural Flow: Fluid motion is due to natural means…………

the rise of warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the fall of
cooler (and thus denser) fluid (example - convection).

Forced Flow: A fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in

a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan.
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the
density of flowing fluid remains
nearly constant throughout
(liquid flow).

Compressible flow: If the density

of fluid changes during flow (high-
speed gas flow)

When analysing rockets, spacecraft,

and other systems that involve high-
speed gas flows, the flow speed is
often expressed by Mach number

Ma = 1 Sonic flow
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow: The highly

ordered fluid motion
characterised by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is
characterised by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow
that alternates between
being laminar and turbulent.
Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows
Steady and Unsteady flow
Steady Flow
This occurs when conditions at any point (velocity, pressure, cross‐section of the stream)
in the fluid do not change with time. The conditions may vary from point to point.

Example: du/dt = 0; dP/dt =0; dT/dt =0; dρ/dt =0

True steady flow only exists in laminar flow

Many devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers,

condensers, and heat exchangers operate for long periods
of time under the same conditions, and they are
classified as steady‐flow devices.

Unsteady Flow
This occurs when conditions at any point change with time
Uniform and Non‐Uniform flow
Uniform Flow
This occurs when, at every point, the velocity vector (and other parameters) is identical
in magnitude and direction at any given instant

du/ds = 0: along a fluid path ‐ U is same in direction and in magnitude

u u u

This equation states that there is no change in the velocity vector

throughout the fluid at any instant. It does not imply that the
velocity is constant at a point over time
(i.e. it is not necessarily ‘steady flow’)

Non‐Uniform Flow
This occurs when the velocity vector
(and other parameters) varies from place to place at any instant.
 Streamline and Streamtube
A streamline is a curve, which is everywhere parallel to the direction of flow. No
streamlines can ever cross each other. Streamlines and path lines become
identical if the flow parameters does not change with time (ie. steady flow).

A stream tube is bounded by streamlines and hence no flow can cross the
boundary of the stream tube. If the fluid is ideal (no losses), the total energy per
unit mass of fluid remains constant along the stream tube.

The path of any particle of liquid as it moves is known as streamline

NEWTON’S LAWS (Recall)

Newton’s laws: Relations between motions of bodies and the forces

acting on them.
Newton’s first law: A body at rest remains at rest, and a body in
motion remains in motion at the same velocity in a straight path when
the net force acting on it is zero.
Therefore, a body tends to preserve its state of inertia.
Newton’s second law: The acceleration of a body is proportional to
the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass.
Newton’s third law: When a body exerts a force on a second body, the
second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
Linear momentum or just the momentum of the body: The product of the
mass and the velocity of a body (mV = mass x velocity).
Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the linear momentum equation.

Newton’s second law is also

expressed as the rate of change of
Linear momentum direction is the momentum of a body is equal
the direction of velocity. to the net force acting on it.
Conservation of Momentum

Conservation of momentum principle:

The rate of change of momentum

of a body is equal to the resultant
force acting upon the body, and
takes place in the direction of that
force. We can write this as –

F = m (V2 – V1)

F - the force required to accelerate the fluid in the direction of flow.

m - mass flow rate
V2 – exit velocity from control volume
V1 – entrance velocity to control volume.
Application of Momentum ‐ Example
A fire hose discharges 1000 kg/min of water with a velocity of 30 m/s in a horizontal
direction. Calculate the force necessary to hold the hose nozzle at rest (500N)

Can you try this ….

Application of Momentum

Force due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend

Impact of a jet on a plane surface

Force on a nozzle at the outlet of a pipe

We can calculate the force the plate will have to

apply using momentum equation……
CONTROL VOLUME
A control volume can be selected as any arbitrary
region in space through which fluid flows, and its
bounding control surface can be fixed, moving, and
even deforming during flow.
Many flow systems involve stationary hardware firmly
fixed to a stationary surface, and such systems are
best analyzed using fixed control volumes.
When analyzing flow systems that are moving or
deforming, it is usually more convenient to allow the
control volume to move or deform.
In deforming control volume, part of the control
surface moves relative to other parts.

Examples of
(a) fixed,
(b)moving,
and
(c)deforming
control
volumes.
FORCES ACTING ON A CONTROL VOLUME
The forces acting on a control volume consist of
Body forces that act throughout the entire body of the control
volume (such as gravity, electric, and magnetic forces) and
Surface forces that act on the control surface (such as pressure
and viscous forces and reaction forces at points of contact).
Only external forces are considered in the analysis.

Total force acting on control volume:

The total force acting on a control

volume is composed of body
forces and surface forces; body
force is shown on a differential
volume element, and surface
force is shown on a differential
surface element.
FORCES ACTING ON A CONTROL VOLUME
Total force acting on control volume:

The total forces on fluid body: FT = FB + FS = FB + (FP + FR)

FT = FB + FP + FR
FB = force exerted on the fluid body (gravity)

FP = force exerted on the fluid body by fluid

pressure outside the control volume

FR = force exerted on the body by any solid

body touching the control volume (CV)

The force exerted by the fluid on the solid

body touching the CV is opposite to FR, so the
reaction force, R. is given by R = - FR
 Application of Momentum ‐ Example
Water is discharging vertically downwards from a 0.2m diameter pipe into a tank resting on a weighing
machine. The pipe outlet is level with the top of the tank which is 3m high and 1.25m diameter. The
velocity of the water at the pipe outlet is 2.7m/s. Determine the percentage error in weighing due to
the dynamic force of the jet, if readings are taken when the water is initially 0.3m and finally 2.8m
deep.
Can you try this …. Mass flow rate = 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑈

𝑘𝑔 𝜋 (0.2)2 2 𝑚
Mass flow rate = 𝑚ሶ = 1000 𝑚3 𝑥 𝑚 𝑥 2.7
4 𝑠
𝑘𝑔
Mass flow rate = 𝑚ሶ = 84.78 𝑠
Velocity at position 1 = 𝑉12 = 𝑈 2 + 2𝑔𝑆1
𝑉1 = 2.7)2 + 2 𝑥 9.81 (3 − 0.3) = 7.78 m/s
𝑆𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑠: 𝐹1 = Weight Force + Impulse
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 0.2𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 3𝑚
𝐹1 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑔 + m 𝑉1
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.25𝑚
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 3𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝜋(1.25)2
𝐹1 = (1000 𝑥 𝑥 0.3 𝑥 9.81 + (84.78 𝑥 7.76)
= 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 2.7 𝑚/𝑠 4
𝐹1 = (4269.6𝑁)
 Mass and Volume Flow Rate
• Volume flow rate (commonly known as discharge): expressed as Q
: The discharge is the volume of fluid flowing per unit time (m3/s)

Can be expressed as Q = A x Um ( m2 x m/s = m3/s)

Where, Um is the mean velocity of the fluid flow;
A = cross sectional are of the pipe.

•Mass flow rate (𝑚˙ ) – weight of fluid flowing per unit time (kg/s)
Mass flow rate (𝑚˙ ) = ρ x Q [(kg/m3) x (m3/s) = kg/s]

= ρ x A x Um
 Application of Momentum ‐ Example
Water is discharging vertically downwards from a 0.2m diameter pipe into a tank resting on a weighing
machine. The pipe outlet is level with the top of the tank which is 3m high and 1.25m diameter. The
velocity of the water at the pipe outlet is 2.7m/s. Determine the percentage error in weighing due to
the dynamic force of the jet, if readings are taken when the water is initially 0.3m and finally 2.8m
deep.
Can you try this …. 𝑆𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∆𝐹 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹1
= 29722.8𝑁
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 2 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
=𝜌𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑔

𝜋(1.25)2
∆𝑊= (1000 𝑥 𝑥 (2.8 − 0.3) 𝑥 9.81
4
∆𝑊= 30096.7 𝑁

𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2: 29722.8 − 30096.7

%𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑥 100
30096.7
𝑉2 = 2.7)2 + 2 𝑥 9.81 (3 − 2.8) = 3.35 m/s
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = −1.25%
𝑆𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
𝜋(1.25)2
𝐹2 = (1000 𝑥 𝑥 2.8 𝑥 9.81 + (84.78 𝑥 3.35)
4
𝐹2 = (33992.4𝑁)
Continuity – conservation of mass
• Conservation of mass: matter can not be created or destroyed
– simply changed to a different form of matter
• We use this principle in Hydrodynamics study

Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time + Increase in mass in
the control volume per unit time
 Continuity – conservation of mass

Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time + Increase in mass in
the control volume per unit time

For steady flow system there will be no increase in the mass within the control
volume, so we can write:

Mass flow rate (kg/s) in = Mass flow rate out (kg/s)

𝒎˙ = ρ1 x A1 x U1 = ρ2 x A2 x U2
 Equation of Continuity

For steady flow, conservation of mass:

Mass flow rate (kg/s) in = Mass flow rate out (kg/s)

We have see before, mass flow rate = 𝒎˙ = ρ x A x Um

𝒎˙ = constant = ρ1 x A1 x U1 = ρ2 x A2 x U2

For incompressible flow density is constant ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ

So we can write, A1 x U1 = A2 x U2 = Q
The above equation is known as ‘equation of continuity’
 Summary
Conservation of momentum : F = m (V2 – V1)
’the rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal to the net force acting on it’’

The total/net forces on the fluid body: FT = FB + FP + FR

For steady flow, conservation of mass:

𝒎˙ = constant = ρ1 x A1 x U1 = ρ2 x A2 x U2

For incompressible flow density is constant ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ

A1 x U1 = A2 x U2 = Q (volume flow rate) ‘equation of continuity’

 Example:
A 0.15m diameter pipe bends through 90° in a horizontal plane and while
bending changes its diameter to 0.07m. The flow rate of the water through the pipe is
0.06 m3/s. Calculate:

(i) Water velocities at inlet and outlet of the bend

(ii) Mass flow rate of water through the pipe

Can you try…….

 Fluids in Motion
(Hydrodynamics): Part 2
5 minutes Break
Learning outcomes

By the end of the session you will :

• Have knowledge and understanding of the energy of fluids in motion

• Learn and understand the application of ‘Bernoulli’ equation in

Hydrodynamics

• Have knowledge on various flow measurement devices and how to

apply Bernoulli principle on those devices
 THE BERNOULLI EQUATION
Bernoulli equation:
-an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation energy
when the fluid is in motion

-valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces

are negligible.

A very powerful tool in fluid mechanics.

The Bernoulli equation is valid

only in inviscid regions of flow
where net viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to
inertial, gravitational, or pressure
forces. Such regions occur
outside of boundary layers.
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Consider a steady flow liquid along the streamline ‘s’

Let’s consider small fluid element shown on the diagram,

dA: cross sectional area, ds: length, P = pressure at one end,
P + dP = pressure on other end, W = weight of the fluid
element, ɵ= angle between weight force (W) and ‘n’

Using Newton’s law, force along the streamline ‘s’ :

------- eq. (1)

We can write, mas = m (dV/dt) = m (dV/ds) x (ds/dt) =

m (ds/dt) (dV/ds) = mV (dV/ds) ------ eq. (2)

Forces acting on fluid element along streamline,

Fs = PdA – (P+dP)dA - WSinɵ-------- eq. (3)

Substituting and equating in equation (1):

ɵ eq. (4)

W WSinɵis the component of W

along stream line s
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
..…eq. (4)

mass = density x volume, weight = mass x gravity

From triangle:

Substituting these in equation (4):

Simplifying above:

dP/ρ+ VdV + gdz = 0

Integrating above:
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation between any

two points on the same streamline:

Flow Kinetic Potential

energy energy energy

The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a fluid particle is constant along a
streamline during steady flow when compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.
• This is equivalent to the general conservation of
energy principle for systems that do not involve
any conversion of mechanical energy and thermal
energy to each other.

• The Bernoulli equation states that during steady,

incompressible flow with negligible friction, the
various forms of energy are converted to each
other, but their sum remains constant.

• There is no dissipation of mechanical energy

during such flows since there is no friction that
converts mechanical energy to sensible thermal
(internal) energy.
Pressure Head, Velocity Head and Elevation Head
It is often convenient to represent the level of mechanical energy graphically using
heights to facilitate visualization of the various terms of the Bernoulli equation.
Dividing each term of the Bernoulli equation by g gives -

Unit of each
term is in meter

P/g is the pressure head; it represents the height of a fluid column

that produces the static pressure P.
V2/2g is the velocity head; it represents the elevation needed for a
fluid to reach the velocity V during frictionless free fall.
z is the elevation head; it represents the potential energy of the fluid.

An alternative form of the Bernoulli equation is

expressed in terms of heads as: The sum of the
pressure, velocity, and elevation heads is constant
along a streamline.

Total Head at position 1 = Total Head at position 2

(on the same streamline)
Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation

1. Steady flow: The Bernoulli equation is applicable to steady flow.

2. Frictionless flow: Every flow involves some friction, no matter how small,
and frictional effects may or may not be negligible.
3. No shaft work: The Bernoulli equation is not applicable in a flow section
that involves a pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since
such devices destroy the streamlines and carry out energy interactions with
the fluid particles. When these devices exist, the energy equation should be
used instead (modified Bernoulli equation).
4. Incompressible flow: Density is taken constant in the derivation of the
Bernoulli equation. The flow is incompressible for liquids and also by gases
at Mach numbers less than about 0.3.
5. No heat transfer: The density of a gas is inversely proportional to
temperature, and thus the Bernoulli equation should not be used for flow
sections that involve significant temperature change such as heating or
cooling sections.
6. Flow along a streamline: The Bernoulli equation is applicable along a
streamline. However, when a region of the flow is irrotational and there is
negligibly small vorticity in the flow field, the Bernoulli equation becomes
applicable across streamlines as well.
Frictional effects, heat transfer, and components that disturb
the streamlined structure of flow make the Bernoulli equation
invalid. It should not be used in any of the flows shown here
When the flow is irrotational, the
Bernoulli equation becomes applicable
between any two points along the flow
(not just on the same streamline).
 Static, Dynamic, and Hydrostatic Pressures
The kinetic and potential energies of the fluid can be converted to flow
energy (and vice versa) during flow, causing the pressure to change.

Unit: N/m2

P is the static pressure: It does not incorporate any dynamic effects; it represents
the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid. This is the same as the pressure
used in thermodynamics and property tables.
V2/2 is the dynamic pressure: It represents the pressure rise when the fluid in
motion is brought to a stop isentropically.
gz is the hydrostatic pressure: It is not pressure in a real sense since its value
depends on the reference level selected; it accounts for the elevation effects, i.e.,
fluid weight on pressure.

Total Pressure: The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the static, dynamic,
and hydrostatic pressures (the total pressure) along a streamline is constant.
Bernoulli Equation – Various Forms

SPECIFIC ENERGY (unit = m2/s2) :

𝑷𝟏 𝒖 𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟐 𝒖 𝟐 𝟐
+ + 𝒈𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒈𝒛𝟐
𝝆 𝟐 𝝆 𝟐

PRESSURE (multiply each term by the density, ): unit is in N/m2

𝝆𝒖𝟏𝟐 𝝆𝒖𝟐𝟐
𝑷𝟏 + + 𝝆𝒈𝒛𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + + 𝝆𝒈𝒛𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

HEIGHT (HEAD) (divide by g) (unit in meter)

𝑷𝟏 𝒖 𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟐 𝒖 𝟐 𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈
TRY YOURSELF:
Bernoulli Example:
Water Discharge from
a Large Tank
(pipe dia is 100 mm

Apply Bernoulli at 1 and 2

and find water flow rate at 2
Bernoulli Example:
Siphoning Out Gasoline
from a Fuel Tank

Calculate velocity and

flow rate at position 2

Using Bernoulli at 1 and 2:

Application of Bernoulli:
Flow Measurement Devices

• Pitot Tube – application of Bernoulli

• Venturi meter ‐ application of Bernoulli

• Orifice Plate ‐ application of Bernoulli

Velocity and Flow Measurement by a Pitot Tube

Determine
velocity V1

Using Bernoulli at 1 and 2:

If we know the flow velocity, we can then calculate the low rate -

Q = A x V1 [ m2 x m/s = m3/s]

𝑚˙ = ρx Q [kg/m3 x m3/s = kg/s]

Venturi Meter

[Link]
Venturi Meter

There are losses in energy

mainly due to the friction at
the venturi meter/throat area

[Link]
bKQb@6/Bernoullis‐Equation
Venturi Meter
Find velocity using Bernoulli equation -
Actual velocity will be less than the theoretical velocity due to the
energy losses at the constriction/throat
Typical co-efficient of discharge value for venture meter
cd = 0.95 – 0.99
Actual velocity = theoretical velocity x co-efficient discharge (cd)

If we know the flow velocity, we can then calculate the

volume and mass flow rate -
Q = A x Vactual [ m2 x m/s = m3/s]
= ρx Q [kg/m3 x m3/s = kg/s]
Orifice Plate

[Link]
ce‐plates‐flow‐nozzles‐meter‐runs/

[Link]
Venturi Meter

Advantages:

Low pressure (energy) loss and hence high accuracy

Unlikely to trap any material

Disadvantages:

Expensive

Installation is time consuming and occupy a certain length

Orifice Plate

Advantages:

Relatively inexpensive

Easy installation – a plate in between a flange

Disadvantages:

Pressure loss (‘vena contracta’ – point of minimum cross sectional

area of the jet)

Possible builds‐up of matter

In the tutorial session you will learn detailed techniques
how we apply Bernoulli principle to measure the flow
rates using the Venturi and Orifice devices.

You will also see application in Laboratory Class.

End of Fluid Mechanics Part

Thermodynamics from next week