FABRICATION & PERFORMANCE

ANALYSIS OF SOLAR WATER HEATER

WITH AGITATOR AND PORUS MEDIUM

CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO PARTICULAS PAGE NO.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

1. SYNOPSIS

2. INTRODUCTION

3. COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

4. WORKING PRINCIPLE

5. DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

6. LIST OF MATERIAL

7. COST ESTIMATION

8. APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGED AND

DISADVANTAGES

9. CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY
 CHAPTER-1

SYNOPSIS

The aim of the present study is to improve the thermal performance of flat plate solar
collector using a novel cost effective enhanced heat transfer technique. The present
work focuses on the process of energy conversion from the collector to the working
fluid. This experimentally accomplished by using agitator in the riser tube, packing of
collector’s surface with pebbles and stainless steel chips. The basic purpose of
agitator in the riser tube is to intensify heat transfer , packing of collector surface with
pebbles and stainless steel chips is for longer heat retention and enhanced heat capture
respectively .it has been found that the efficiency of collector with agitator and metal
chips is highest among all other combinations.

But solar energy is very large life in exhaustible source of energy. The power
from the sun intercepted by the earth is approximately 1.8 x 10¹¹ MW, which is many
thousands of items larger than the percent consumption rate on the earth of all
commercial energy sources. We can be also sized to fit the demand more accurately.
Although healing systems deal with extreme loads only a few days of the year, they will
have to be large enough to meet those extremes.
 CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION

There are four primary sources of energy viz. petroleum, natural gas and natural liquids,
coal and wood. Excepting wood, all the common sources have finite supplies. The lift-
time is estimated to range from 15 years for natural gas to nearly 300 year for coal.
Therefore, as these non-renewable sources are consumed, the mankind must turn its
attention to longer-term, permanent type for energy sources. The two most significant
such sources are nuclear and solar energy.

Nuclear energy requires advanced technology and costly means for its safe and
reliable utilization and may have undesirable side effects. Solar energy, on the other
hand, shows promise of becoming a dependable energy sources without new
requirements of a highly technical and specialized nature for its wide spread utilization.
In addition, there appear to be no significant polluting effects from its use.

But solar energy is very large life in exhaustable source of energy. The power
from the sun intercepted by the earth is approximately 1.8 x 10¹¹ MW, which is many
thousands of items larger than the percent consumption rate on the earth of all
commercial energy sources.

A can be also sized to fit the demand more accurately. Although healing systems
deal with extreme loads only a few days of the year, they will have to be large enough to
meet those extremes.
 A solar water heating system, on the other hand, will have roughly the same load
day in any day out, except in unusual applications, the design load should be close to the
normal daily load. Without the problems of widely fluctuating demand. can be
relatively cheaper and simpler than solar building water filter.

A problem common to all types of solar heating is the variable nature of sunshine.
however often have an additional advantage over solar space heating systems because the
requirements for hot water are less rigid than those for space heating.

There are however, several aspects of solar water heating that make it potentially
hotter investment of energy money and effort than solar building heating. For one thing,
the demand for hot water is relatively constant throughout the year. Thus the collector
and the other parts of the will be working harder and longer to produce the savings I fuel
that eventually must pay for the higher initial cost of the system.

TYPES OF SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM:

Solar water heating system is classified into three types namely (A) Active system (B)
Passive system (C) Batch system

Active system:

Active system use electric pumps, valves and controller to circulate water. It is again
classified into two categories (A) Open loop (direct) active system.(B) Closed
loop(indirect) active system.
Passive system:

Passive system simply circulates water or heat transfer fluid by natural convection
between collector and elevated storage tank. Thermosiphon and evacuated tube collector
is one of the best example for this type of system.

Batch system:

Batch system also known as integral collector storage system are simply passive system
consisting of one or more storage tank placed in an insulating box that has a glazed side
facing the sun
PROJECT CONCEPT:

The present work concentrates on the incorporation of porous medium to improve the
thermal performance of a dual purpose solar collector. Dual purpose solar collectors can
be used for heating air and water simultaneously using incident solar radiation resulting
in optimum usage of energy and space. A simulation study is undertaken to investigate
the integration of a porous matrix to dual purpose collectors.

The porous matrix is incorporated below the absorber plate of the collector to improve
the thermal performance of the overall system. The total thermal efficiency of the
modified collector is found to vary from 34.60% to 46.03% over inlet water temperature
range of 30°C to 90°C. Flat plate solar water heater efficiency is improved by placing
additional device around flow path of hot water carrying pipes like twisted tapes, wire
coil and by using nano fluids like silver nano fluids and some porous medium is also
used. But in flat plate solar water heater, temperature loss of water occurs suddenly due
to high convection loss, and this factor is prevented by placing agitator and porous
medium.
OTHER FUNCTIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY:

1. Heating of building
2. Cooling of building
3. Solar distillation
4. Solar drying
5. Solar cookers
6. Solar engine
7. Food refrigeration
8. Solar furnaces
9. Solar thermal power generation etc.
 CHAPTER-3
LITERATURE REVIEW

Solar Flat Plate Collector Analysis, [Link], Mechanical Department, TIT,

R.G.P.V. Bhopal India, Feb.2012: Flat Plate Collector (FPC) is widely used for domestic hot-
water, space heating/drying and for applications requiring fluid temperature less than 100 o C.
Three main components associated with FPC namely, absorber plate, top covers and heating
pipes. The absorber plate is selective coated to have high absorptivity. It receives heat by solar
radiation and by conduction; heat is transferred to the flowing liquid through the heating pipes.
The fluid flow through the collector pipes is by natural (thermosyphon effect) or by forced
circulation (pump flow). For small water heating systems natural circulation is used for fluid
flow. Conventionally, absorbers of all flat plate collectors are straight copper/aluminum sheets
however, which limits on the heat collection surface transfer area. Thus, higher heat collection
surface area is optimized by changing its geometry with the same space of conventional FPC.
The objective of present study is to evaluate the performance of FPC with different geometric
absorber configuration. It is expected that with the same collector space higher thermal
efficiency or higher water temperature can be obtained. Thus, cost of the FPC can be further
bring down by enhancing the collector efficiency. A test setup is fabricated and experiments
conduct to study these aspects under laboratory conditions (as per IS standard available for the
flat plate collector testing).
Flat Plate Collectors Of the many solar collector concepts presently being developed, the
relatively simple flat plate solar collector has found the widest application so far. Its
characteristics are known, and compared with other collector types, it is the easiest and least
expensive to fabricate, install, and maintain. Moreover, it is capable of using both the diffuse and
the direct beam solar radiation. For residential and commercial use, flat plate collectors can
produce heat at sufficiently high temperatures to heat swimming pools, domestic hot water, and
buildings; they also can operate a cooling unit, particularly if the incident sunlight is increased by
the use of a reflector. Flat plate collectors easily attain temperatures of 40 to 70ºC. With very
careful engineering using special surfaces, reflectors to increase the incident radiation, and heat-
resistant materials, higher operating temperatures are feasible. The main components of a flat
plate solar collector:

Components of a flat plate solar collector

Absorber plate made of any material, which will rapidly absorb heat from sun's rays and quickly
transfer that heat to the tubes or fins attached in some manner, which produces a good thermal
bond. Tubes or fins for conducting or directing the heat transfer fluid from the inlet header or
duct to the outlet. Glazing, this may be one or more sheets of glass or a diathermanous (radiation
transmitting) plastic film or sheet.Thermal insulation, which minimizes downward heat loss
from the plate. Cover strip, to hold the other components in position and make it all
Watertight.Container or Casing, which surrounds the foregoing components and keeps them
free from dust, moisture, etc. Flat plate solar collectors are classified into Water-type (hydronic)
collectors, using water as the heat-transfer fluid. Air-type collectors, using air as the heat-transfer
fluid. Fig. 1.2 (a) shows a few of the very large number of flat plate solar collectors (hydronic
and air type), which are currently used. In this figure, diagrams A (1, 2) show conventional liquid
heaters with the tubes soldered or otherwise fastened to upper or lower surfaces of metal sheets.
Clips, clamps, twisted wires; thermal cements and many other devices have been tried with
varying success. Diagram A3 shows a bonded sheet design in which the tubes are integral with
the sheet, thus guaranteeing a good thermal connection between the absorber plate and the tubes.
This process is widely used commercially for producing radiators and other heat exchangers.
Diagrams B and D show different ways in which galvanized steel sheets have been fastened
together to make watertight containers with individual fluid passages. Diagram C shows the
concept of using parallel sheets of copper, aluminum or Galvanized steel, which are dimpled and
fastened together at intervals by spot welding or riveting. All of the non-tubular types are limited
in the pressure, which they can sustain, and in general they are not suited for use with high line
pressures in diagram F, shown is the use of tubing with rectangular or circular cross-section
bonded on the plate; rectangular cross-section obtains more contact between the tube and the
plate. Mechanical pressure, thermal cement or brazing may be used to make the actual assembly.

Design and construction of a solar flat collector for social housing in México, R. D.
Maldonado, Universidad Anahuac-Mayab,Facultad de Ingeniería, Carr. Mérida-Prog. Km
15.5 A.P. 96 Cordemex, Mérida, C.P. 97310, México, 2013: In this work, the design,
construction and instantaneous efficiency in solar water heater were investigated. A thermal
analysis was developed, based on the energy balanced in the solar collector. The geometry and
dimension in the collector was determinate by the results of the thermal analysis and the thermal
properties of the materials used for the collector construction. The dimension of solar collector
was of 1.4 m2 with a storage tank of 100 L. The highest temperature reached was 55.0 o C and
decreased to 47.6 o C during the night. The flow rate was at range from 0.0038- 0.04 kg/s, and
the global average efficiency was of 30.2%.
The prototype of the solar water heater was designed on a commercial software NX 8.0, in the
Fig. is shown the elements that form the solar water heater, such as is the collector, storage tank,
tank stand and the connection between the tank and collector. The dimension of the collector was
estimated in accordance to the energy necessary to heat 100 L of water up to 60 o C, and was of
1.4 m2 . The collector allows the transmittance of the solar ray up to the receiver tube, through of
two glass covers with a transmittance of 0.90. The collector has eight internal copper tubes
arranged parallels as heat absorbers, these tubes have 1.5 m length, and the distance between
each tube is 0.1 m. The absorber tubes have a coating with absorbance of 0.998; the energy
absorbed by the copper tubes is transferred to the water due to thermal conductivity of the
copper, which is 385 W/mo C. The collector has an internal reflector for each absorber tube, the
lower surface of tube is in the focus of reflector; the incident rays on reflectors are reflected to
lower surface of tubes. The reflectors have an aperture of 0.1 m and 1.5 m length, and are made
of a reflective metallic sheet. The collector has insulation with a thermal conductivity of 0.023
W/mo C, which avoids the heat transfer between the collector and ambient to reducing the heat
loss. The water storage tank is of 100 L, which has a thermal insulation that allows maintain the
temperature of water during the night or cloudy days with little temperature loss. The tank
consists of two metallic cylinders that in its interface have a thermal insulation with a thermal
conductivity of X W/mo C. The storage tank has five connecting pipe at its lower part and a
safety valve at its top part by which the extra amount of heat is extracted to the atmosphere, as is
shown in Fig.

Fig. . NX design of the solar water heater. Fig. . Installation of the solar water heater.
The connecting pipe E is used to connect the inlet of collector with storage tank, connecting pipe
D is used to connect the solar water heater to the water domestic network. The connecting pipe C
is used as water dump valve, connecting pipe B connects the cistern with the solar water heater
and connecting pipe A is used to connect the outlet of the collector with the storage tank. The
connecting pipe F is used as safety valve, as is shown in Fig. 3. The solar water heater
installation was realized according to the geographical location, with the collector perpendicular
to the incident solar rays. The collector inclination was at angle of 21o relative to horizontal and
the storage tank oriented toward the north. The connection between the collector and tank was
through PVC tubes with 1.26 cm of inside diameter. The solar water heater characterization was
realized during 23 hours with 100 L of water, disconnected of the water domestic network, i.e.
without water loss during of testing time. The solar irradiance was measured with a Sunshine
pyrometer, model SPN1-A619, to determinate the energy incident on solar water heater. The
temperature was measured in all elements involved on adsorption and loss energy of solar water
collector, such as the receiver, the glass covers, the water inlet and outlet of collector, on
reflector, into the storage tank and the ambient. The maximum and minimum temperatures were
measured in the storage tank. For temperature measurements were employed thermocouples type
K connected to wireless module of National instruments, NI WLS-9213 model with 16 channels
and connected by Ethernet for its remote monitoring. A program developed on LabView 2012
monitored the measurements, the results was showed in real time and saved for subsequent
analysis.
The design, construction, installation and analysis of the overall heat loss by radiation,
convection and conduction of a solar water heater by solar concentrator were discussed. The
average temperature into storage tank with 100 L of water by 11 hours of solar irradiation
equivalents to 25.0 MJ of total energy was 50.4 o C. The average temperature into the storage
tank decreased in 7.0 o C during the night. The water temperature in the tank was made more
homogeneous during the cooling process up to reach 2.0 o C of different between the high
temperature and low temperature. The water flow rate was found in range from 0.0038-0.040
kg/s, and was found that the instantaneous efficiency increased with the flow rate increment. The
instantaneous efficient decreased at a rate of -19.3 W/o Cm2 , and the global efficiency of the
solar water heater was estimated in 30.2 %. The solar energy absorbed by solar water heater was
10.5 MJ during 11 hours of solar irradiation; this is equivalent to use of 0.23 kg of LP gas. The
solar water heater avoided the emission of 0.57 kg kg of CO2.
 COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

The components used in this project are:

1. Flat plate water heater

2. Insulated water tank
3. Copper coated aluminum wire
4. Copper tubes
5. Flow control valves

Flat plate water heater:

A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. A collector is a device for capturing

solar radiation. Solar radiation is energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation from

the infrared (long) to the ultraviolet (short) wavelengths. The quantity of solar energy striking the

Earth's surface (solar constant) averages about 1,000 watts per square meter under clear skies,

depending upon weather conditions, location and orientation.

The term "solar collector" commonly refers to solar hot water panels, but may refer to

installations such as solar parabolic troughs andsolar towers; or basic installations such as solar

air heaters. Concentrated solar power plants usually use the more complex collectors to

generate electricity by heating a fluid to drive a turbine connected to an electrical

generator. Simple collectors are typically used in residential and commercial buildings for space

heating.
Flat plate collectors

Flat-plate collectors, developed by Hottel and Whillier in the 1950s, are the most common type.

They consist of a dark flat-plate absorber, a transparent cover that reduces heat losses, a heat-

transport fluid (air, antifreeze or water) to remove heat from the absorber, and a heat insulating

backing. The absorber consists of a thin absorber sheet (of thermally stable polymers, aluminum,

steel or copper, to which a matte black or selective coating is applied) often backed by a grid or

coil of fluid tubing placed in an insulated casing with a glass or polycarbonate cover. In water

heat panels, fluid is usually circulated through tubing to transfer heat from the absorber to an

insulated water tank. This may be achieved directly or through a heat exchanger.

Most air heat fabricators and some water heat manufacturers have a completely flooded absorber

consisting of two sheets of metal which the fluid passes between. Because the heat exchange area

is greater they may be marginally more efficient than traditional absorbers. Sunlight passes

through the glazing and strikes the absorber plate, which heats up, changing solar energy into

heat energy. The heat is transferred to liquid passing through pipes attached to the absorber plate.

Absorber plates are commonly painted with "selective coatings," which absorb and retain heat

better than ordinary black paint. Absorber plates are usually made of metal—typically copper or

aluminum—because the metal is a good heat conductor. Copper is more expensive, but is a

better conductor and less prone to corrosion than aluminum. (See: Copper in solar water

heaters). In locations with average available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized

approximately one-half to one square foot per gallon of one day's hot water use. Absorber piping

configurations include:
harp – traditional design with bottom pipe risers and top collection pipe, used in low pressure

thermosyphon and pumped systems;

serpentine – one continuous S that maximizes temperature but not total energy yield in variable

flow systems, used in compact solar domestic hot water only systems (no space heating role);

flooded absorber consisting of two sheets of metal stamped to produce a circulation zone;

boundary layer absorber collectors consisting of several layers of transparent and opaque sheets

that enable absorption in a boundary layer. Because the energy is absorbed in the boundary layer,

heat conversion may be more efficient than for collectors where absorbed heat is conducted

through a material before the heat is accumulated in a circulating liquid.[citation needed]

Polymer flat plate collectors are an alternative to metal collectors and are now being produced in

Europe. These may be wholly polymer, or they may include metal plates in front of freeze-

tolerant water channels made of silicone rubber. Polymers are flexible and therefore freeze-

tolerant and can employ plain water instead of antifreeze, so that they may be plumbed directly

into existing water tanks instead of needing heat exchangers that lower efficiency. By dispensing

with a heat exchanger, temperatures need not be quite so high for the circulation system to be

switched on, so such direct circulation panels, whether polymer or otherwise, can be more

efficient, particularly at low light levels. Some early selectively coated polymer collectors

suffered from overheating when insulated, as stagnation temperatures can exceed the polymer's

melting point.[4][5] For example, the melting point of polypropylene is 160 °C (320 °F), while

the stagnation temperature of insulated thermal collectors can exceed 180 °C (356 °F) if control

strategies are not used. For this reason polypropylene is not often used in glazed selectively

coated solar collectors. Increasingly polymers such as high temperate silicones (which melt at

over 250 °C (482 °F)) are being used. Some non polypropylene polymer based glazed solar
collectors are matte black coated rather than selectively coated to reduce the stagnation

temperature to 150 °C (302 °F) or less.

In areas where freezing is a possibility, freeze-tolerance (the capability to freeze repeatedly

without cracking) can be achieved by the use of flexible polymers. Silicone rubber pipes have

been used for this purpose in UK since 1999. Conventional metal collectors are vulnerable to

damage from freezing, so if they are water filled they must be carefully plumbed so they

completely drain using gravity before freezing is expected, so that they do not crack. Many metal

collectors are installed as part of a sealed heat exchanger system. Rather than having potable

water flow directly through the collectors, a mixture of water and antifreeze such as propylene

glycol is used. A heat exchange fluid protects against freeze damage down to a locally

determined risk temperature that depends on the proportion of propylene glycol in the mixture.

The use of glycol lowers the water's heat carrying capacity marginally, while the addition of an

extra heat exchanger may lower system performance at low light levels.

A pool or unglazed collector is a simple form of flat-plate collector without a transparent cover.

Typically polypropylene or EPDM rubber or silicone rubber is used as an absorber. Used for

pool heating it can work quite well when the desired output temperature is near the ambient

temperature (that is, when it is warm outside). As the ambient temperature gets cooler, these

collectors become less effective. Most flat plate collectors have a life expectancy of over 25

years.

Applications

The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand for hot water has a

large impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large family, or a situation

in which the hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry washing. Commercial
applications include laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and eating

establishments. The technology can also be used for space heating if the building is located off-

grid or if utility power is subject to frequent outages. Solar water heating systems are most likely

to be cost effective for facilities with water heating systems that are expensive to operate, or with

operations such as laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot water. Unglazed

liquid collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools but can also be applied to

large scale water pre-heating. When loads are large relative to available collector area the bulk of

the water heating can be done at low temperature, lower than at swimming pool temperatures

where unglazed collectors are well established in the marketplace as the right choice. Because

these collectors need not withstand high temperatures, they can use less expensive materials such

as plastic or rubber. Many unglazed collectors are made of polypropylene and must be drained

fully to avoid freeze damage when air temperatures drop below 44F on clear nights. A smaller

but growing percentage of unglazed collectors are flexible meaning they can withstand water

freezing solid inside their absorber. The freeze concern only need be the water filled piping and

collector manifolds in a hard freeze condition. Unglazed solar hot water systems should be

installed to "drainback" to a storage tank whenever solar radiation is insufficient. There are no

thermal shock concerns with unglazed systems. Commonly used in swimming pool heating since

solar energy's early beginnings, unglazed solar collectors heat swimming pool water directly

without the need for antifreeze or heat exchangers. Hot water solar systems require heat

exchangers due to contamination possibilities and in the case of unglazed collectors, the pressure

difference between the solar working fluid (water) and the load (pressurized cold city water).

Large scale unglazed solar hot water heaters like the one at the Minoru Aquatic Center in

Richmond BC operate at lower temperatures than evacuated tube or boxed and glazed collector
systems so they require larger more expensive heat exchangers but all other components

including vented storage tanks and uninsulated plastic PVC piping reduce costs of this

alternative dramatically compared to the higher temperature collector types. When heating hot

water we are actually heating cold to warm and warm to hot. We can heat cold to warm as

efficiently with unglazed collectors as we can heat warm to hot with high temperature collectors

Insulated water tank:

A hot water storage tank (also called a hot water tank, thermal storage tank, hot water thermal

storage unit, heat storage tank andhot water cylinder) is a water tank used for storing hot water

for space heating or domestic use.

Water is a convenient heat storage medium because it has a high specific heat capacity. This

means, compared to other substances, it can store more heat per unit of weight (and volume).

[citation needed] Water is non-toxic and in many countries available free of charge or at low

cost.

An efficiently insulated tank can retain stored heat for days, reducing fuel costs. Hot water tanks

may have a built-in gas or oil burner system, electric immersion heaters, an external heat

exchanger such as a central heating system, or heated water from another energy source such as

a wood-burning stove, district heating system, solar collectors, a biomass heat source, or an air,

water or earth source heat pump or any combination of the above. The most typical, in the

domestic context, is a fossil-fuel burner supplemented by electric imersion elements, whether

grid powered or using renewable generation such as wind power as an independent installation or

a district heating scheme].

Largely due to the move towards smaller households in developed countries, along with high

density housing and high levels of private home ownership, the trend has been increasingly away

from maintaining any hot water storage tanks, opting instead for integrated central heating

systems supplied by combination boilers that can supply mains pressure hot water on demand.

Water heaters for washing, bathing, or laundry have thermostat controls to regulate the

temperature, in the range of 40 to 60 °C (104 to 140 °F), and are connected to the domestic cold

water supply.

Where the local water supply has a high content of dissolved minerals such as limestone, heating

the water causes the minerals to precipitate in the tank (scaling) and a tank may develop leaks

due to corrosion after only a few years, a problem exacerbated by dissolved oxygen in the water

which accelerates corrosion of both tank and fittings.

Typically hot water storage tanks are wrapped in heat insulation to reduce energy consumption,

speed up the heating process, and maintain the desired operating temperature.

In a solar water heating system, a solar hot water storage tank stores heat from solar thermal

collectors. The tank has a built-in heat-exchanger to heat domestic cold water. In relatively mild

climates, such as the Mediterranean, the (heavily insulated but metal-wrapped) storage tanks are

often roof-mounted. All such tanks share the same problems as artificially-heated tanks including

limestone deposit and corrosion, and suffer similar reductions in overall efficiency unless

scrupulously maintained.
Copper coated aluminum wire:

Copper-clad aluminium wire, commonly abbreviated as CCAW or CCA, is an electrical

conductor composed of an inner aluminium core and outer copper cladding

The properties of copper-clad aluminium wire include:

Less expensive than a pure copper wire

Lighter than pure copper

Higher electrical conductivity than pure aluminium

Higher strength than aluminium

Better solderability than aluminium, due to the lack of the oxide layer which

prevents solder adhesion when soldering bare aluminium

Electrical connections are typically more reliable than pure aluminium

Typically produced as a 10% or 15% by copper volume product

The primary applications of this conductor revolve around weight reduction requirements. These

applications include high-quality coils, such as the voice coils in headphones or

portable loudspeakers; high frequency coaxial applications, such as RF antennas and cable

television distribution cables; and power cables

CCA was also used in electrical wiring for buildings The copper/aluminium construction was

adopted to avoid some of the problems with aluminium wire, yet retain some of the cost

advantage. In the US, solid copper is most commonly used in internal residential 120 V or 240 V

wiring.
CCA is also seen in unshielded twisted pair networking [Link] cables are often less

expensive than their full-copper counterparts. Experts advice against the use of CCA cables in

networks because it is far less reliable and can affect transmission speeds. This is due to a

number of factors, important ones being aluminums much higher electrical impedance compared

to copper and the fact that aluminum is less flexible and tends to break more easily.

Copper tubes:

Copper tubing is most often used for supply of hot and cold tap water, and as refrigerant line

in HVAC systems. There are two basic types of copper tubing, soft copper and rigid copper.

Copper tubing is joined using flare connection, compression connection, or solder. Copper offers

a high level of corrosion resistance, but is becoming very costly.

Soft copper

Soft (or ductile) copper tubing can be bent easily to travel around obstacles in the path of the

tubing. While the work hardening of the drawing process used to size the tubing makes the

copper hard or rigid, it is carefully annealed to make it soft again; it is therefore more expensive

to produce than non-annealed, rigid copper tubing. It can be joined by any of the three methods

used for rigid copper, and it is the only type of copper tubing suitable for flare connections. Soft

copper is the most popular choice for refrigerant lines insplit-system air conditioners and heat

pumps.

Rigid copper

Rigid copper is a popular choice for water lines. It is joined using a sweat, roll grooved,

compression or crimped/pressed connection. Rigid copper, rigid due to the work hardening of the
drawing process, cannot be bent and must use elbow fittings to go around corners or around

obstacles. If heated and allowed to cool in a process called annealing, rigid copper will become

soft and can be bent/formed without cracking.

Soldered connections

Solder fittings are smooth, and easily slip onto the end of a tubing section. The joint is then

heated using a torch, and solder is melted into the connection. When the solder cools, it forms a

very strong bond which can last for decades. Solder-connected rigid copper is the most popular

choice for water supply lines in modern buildings. In situations where many connections must be

made at once (such as plumbing of a new building), solder offers much quicker and much less

expensive joinery than compression or flare fittings. The term sweating is sometimes used to

describe the process of soldering pipes.

Compression connections

Compression fittings use a soft metal or thermoplastic ring (the compression ring, "olive" or

"ferrule") which is squeezed onto the pipe and into the fitting by a compression nut. The soft

metal conforms to the surface of the tubing and the fitting, and creates a seal. Compression

connections do not typically have the long life that sweat connections offer, but are advantageous

in many cases because they are easy to make using basic tools. A disadvantage in compression

connections is that they take longer to make than sweat, and sometimes require re-tightening

over time to stop leaks.

Flare connections

Flare connections require that the end of a tubing section be spread outward in a bell shape using

a flare tool. A flare nut then compresses this bell-shaped end onto a male fitting. Flare
connections are a labor-intensive method of making connections, but are quite reliable over the

course of many years.

Crimped or pressed connections

Crimped or pressed connections use special copper fittings which are permanently attached to

rigid copper tubing with a powered crimper. The special fittings, manufactured with sealant

already inside, slide over the tubing to be connected. Thousands of pounds-force per square inch

of pressure are used to deform the fitting and compress the sealant against the inner copper

tubing, creating a water-tight seal. The advantages of this method are that it should last as long as

the tubing, it takes less time to complete than other methods, it is cleaner in both appearance and

the materials used to make the connection, and no open flame is used during the connection

process. The disadvantages are that the fittings used are harder to find and cost significantly

more than sweat-type fittings.

Flow control valve:

A flow control valve regulates the flow or pressure of a fluid. Control valves normally respond

to signals generated by independent devices such asflow meters or temperature gauges.

Control valves are normally fitted with actuators and positioners. Pneumatically-actuated globe

valves and Diaphragm Valves are widely used for control purposes in many industries, although

quarter-turn types such as (modified) ball, gate and butterfly valves are also used.

Control valves can also work with hydraulic actuators (also known as hydraulic pilots). These

types of valves are also known as Automatic Control Valves. The hydraulic actuators will

respond to changes of pressure or flow and will open/close the valve. Automatic Control Valves
do not require an external power source, meaning that the fluid pressure is enough to open and

close the valve. Automatic control valves include: pressure reducing valves, flow control valves,

back-pressure sustaining valves, altitude valves, and relief valves. An altitude valve controls the

level of a tank. The altitude valve will remain open while the tank is not full and it will close

when the tanks reaches its maximum level. The opening and closing of the valve requires no

external power source (electric, pneumatic, or man power), it is done automatically, hence its

name.

Process plants consist of hundreds, or even thousands, of control loops all networked together to

produce a product to be offered for sale. Each of these control loops is designed to keep some

important process variable such as pressure, flow, level, temperature, etc. within a required

operating range to ensure the quality of the end product. Each of these loops receives and

internally creates disturbances that detrimentally affect the process variable, and interaction from

other loops in the network provides disturbances that influence the process variable.[1]

To reduce the effect of these load disturbances, sensors and transmitters collect information

about the process variable and its relationship to some desired set point. A controller will then

process this information and decides what must be done to get the process variable back to where

it should be after a load disturbance occurs. When all the measuring, comparing, and calculating

are done, some type of final control element must implement the strategy selected by the

controller. The most common final control element in the process control industries is the control

valve. The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or chemical

compounds, to compensate for the load disturbance and keep the regulated process variable as

close as possible to the desired set point.

 CHAPTER-4
WORKING PRINCIPLE
The basic parts of the working models are - Flat plate water heater, Insulated Water
Storage Tank, Instruments used are Digital Thermometer, Agitator using Aluminium
Wire with copper coating, Packing Media such as Pebbles, Stainless Steel chips. The
purpose of agitator in the riser tube is to intensify heat transfer and packing of collector
surface with porous medium is for longer heat retention and to enhance heat transfer
respectively. The frame of solar collector is made with aluminium and circulation pipe is
made with plastic pipe. Inside flat plate collector pipes are made with copper tubes of
15mm dia. The length of riser tube is 55cm and the length of header tube is 48 cm, and
the number of riser tube is 6 and the number of header tube is 2 solar collector frame
length is 70 cm and width of collector is 62 cm. Storage tank capacity of about 15 litres.

Frame of solar flat collector is covered with 3mm thickness glass. Copper sheet metal is
placed below copper pipes for heat capture respectively. Stand is usually made with
stainless steel. Following are the part of the project namely body of collector, support for
tank, two valve one for storage tank outlet and another one for inlet flow of water. Valve
which is made for outlet is made with mild steel and valve for inlet is made with plastic.
In construction of flat plate collector insulation that are made with glass wool to prevent
heat escaping radiation. Copper pipes are welded with help of gas welding. Storage tank
inlet and outlet are made by collar of 18 mm dia. The top surface of the collector was left
open for the glass cover plate. Flat plate collector along with storage tank, valve and
copper pipes were painted black to increase absorption of heat.
 CHAPTER-5
DESIGN AND DRAWINGS
 CHAPTER-6

LIST OF MATERIALS

[Link]. PARTS Qty. Material

i. Insulated tank 1 Cast iron

ii. Flat plate collector 1 Stainless

Steel

iii. Flow control valve 1 Aluminium

iv. Copper coated aluminium wires 1 Aluminium

v Copper tubes - Copper

vi Pebbles - -

vii Frame 1 Mild Steel

Viii Glass 1 Glass

CHAPTER-7
 COST ESTIMATION

MATERIAL COST:

[Link]. PARTS Qty. Material Amount (Rs)

i. Insulated tank 1 Cast iron i.

ii. Flat plate collector 1 Stainless ii.

Steel

iii. Flow control valve 1 Aluminium iii.

iv. Copper coated aluminium wires 1 Aluminium iv.

v Copper tubes - Copper v

vi Pebbles - - vi

vii Frame 1 Mild Steel vii

Total = Rs.

2. LABOUR COST

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:

Cost = 1500/-

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES
The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost

= +1500
=

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

=
TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

=
= Rs

Total cost for this project = Rs.

CHAPTER-8
 APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAES AND DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES:
1. Reliable resource
2. No need of running cost
3. Less maintenance
DISADVANTAGES
1. High initial cost
2. More processing time
APPLICATIONS
1. Hotels
2. Apartments
3. Individual houses
4. Industries

CHAPTER-9
CONCLUSION
Flat plate solar water heater is being fabricated with low cost, as flat plate collector has
low efficiency because of convection heat transfer loss. In this thesis this factor is
considered and prevention of this loss is done by porous medium and agitator.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 1. Saleem Raza Samo, Asif Ali Siyal “ Analysis Of An Active And

Passive Solar Water

Heating System”, Sixteenth International Water Technology

Conference, IWTC 16 2012,

Istanbul, Turkey, Volume 3 May 2003.

2. [Link] Singh Chouhan, [Link] Kumar Agarwal “

Experimental Analysis Of Batch

Type Solar Heater With Integrated Collector Storage Tank”,

International Journal of

Emerging Technology & Advanced Engineering, Volume 3, Issue 5,

May 2013.

3. [Link], [Link], [Link] “ Manufacturing And Performance

Analysis Of Solar

Flat Plate Collector With Phase Change Material”, International

Journal of

Emerging
Technology & Advanced Engineering, Volume 2, Issue 3, March 2012.

4. Dilip Johari, Ashok Yadav “ Study Of Solar Water Based On Exergy

Analsis”,

National Conference on Trends and Advances in Mechanical

Engineering, volume (3) 4,

139-147,2007.

5. Samara Sadrin, Maherin Hossain “Alternative Solar Water Heater For

Domestic Purpose”

Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 64-70, 2014.

6. [Link] Martin, [Link] Pinar “ Experimental Heat Transfer

Research In Enhanced

Flat Plate Solar Collectors”, World Renewable Energy Congress Sweden

May 2011.

7. Ajay Kumar,Vinay Yadav “Advanced Solar Water Heating With

Electricity Generation”

Journal of Engineering,Computer & Engineering Science, Volume 1(2),

November 2012.
8. BAA Yousef “ Performance Analysis Of Flat Plate Collector With

And Without Porous Medium” Alternative and Renewable Energy

Laboratory, Institute of Advanced Technolo

-gy University Putra Malaysia Renewable Energy, 28 (2003), 1325-

1339.

9. Pravin [Link], Rupesh S Shelke “Solar Energy Concentration

Technique In Flat Plat

Collector”. International J ournal of Mechanical Engineering and

Technology (IJMET),

Volume 3, Issue 3, September – December 2012.

10. Arun Venu, Arun.P “ Simulation Studies On Porous Medium

Integrated Dual Purpose

Solar Collector”, International Journal of Renewable Energy

Research,Vol.3 No.1 2013.