Applied Mathematics II

FE Engineering — All Branches

Chapter 2
Higher Order Linear
Differential Equations

Topics Covered:

ˆ Complementary Function (CF) — All Root Types

ˆ Particular Integral (PI) — Types 1 through 6
ˆ Variation of Parameters (VPM)
ˆ Cauchy–Euler Differential Equations
ˆ Legendre’s Linear Differential Equations

Syllabus: MU NEP-2020 / Pre-NEP C-Scheme (Paper Code

29711 / 10521)
Chapter Weightage: 18–24 marks — highest-yield chapter in
the paper
VPM alone: 8 marks every single paper (never missed 2022–2025)
Source: TCET Resource Book + All PYQs 2022–2025

Thakur College of Engineering & Technology (TCET)

Mumbai University · FE Semester II
2 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

Contents

1 Higher Order Linear Differential Equations 5

1.1 Memorization Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Structure of the General Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Complementary Function: All Root Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.3 Quick AE Reference Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Particular Integral: All Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.5 Variation of Parameters — Master Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.6 Cauchy–Euler and Legendre’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.7 VPM Results to Memorise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.8 Standard Integrals for VPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1 Why CF + PI? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2 When Each PI Type Applies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 Why the Shift Theorem Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.4 Why VPM Always Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Complementary Function — Solved Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Particular Integral — Type 2: X = eax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Particular Integral — Type 3: X = sin(ax) or cos(ax) . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Particular Integral — Type 4 & 5: xm and eax V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6.1 Type 4: X = xm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6.2 Type 5: X = eax V (Shift Theorem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.7 Variation of Parameters (VPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8 Cauchy–Euler Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.9 Legendre’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.10 Mixed Module Practice (NEP-2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.11 PYQ Mapping & Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.12 High-Probability Questions (Exam Predictor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.13 Final Summary Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.14 Exam Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3
4 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

Chapter 1

Higher Order Linear Differential Equa-

tions

Strategic Note
This chapter is the single highest-mark chapter in Applied Mathematics II. VPM
(Variation of Parameters) alone appears for 8 marks in every paper without
exception (2022–2025). Master the 6 VPM patterns in Section 1.7 and you guarantee
8 marks instantly. CF + PI accounts for another 6–8 marks per paper. Total potential
from this chapter: 20–24 marks.

1.1 Memorization Section

1.1.1 Structure of the General Solution

Complete Solution
The general solution of f (D)y = X is:

d
y = yc + yp where D≡
|{z} |{z} dx
C.F. P.I.

ˆ C.F.: general solution of f (D)y = 0 — contains n arbitrary constants.

ˆ P.I.: any particular solution of f (D)y = X — contains no arbitrary constants.

1.1.2 Complementary Function: All Root Types

5
6 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

CF Based on Roots of Auxiliary Equation f (m) = 0

Root Nature Pattern CF

Real, distinct: m1 ̸= two roots c1 em1 x + c2 em2 x

m2

Real, repeated: m1 = double (c1 + c2 x)emx

m2 = m

Real, triple: m1 = triple (c1 + c2 x + c3 x2 )emx

m2 = m3 = m

Complex: m = α ± iβ non-repeated eαx (c1 cos βx + c2 sin βx)


Complex repeated: twice eαx (c1 + c2 x) cos βx + (c3 +
m = α ± iβ c4 x) sin βx

Pure imaginary: (α = 0) c1 cos βx + c2 sin βx

m = ±iβ

1.1.3 Quick AE Reference Table

Common Auxiliary Equations and Their CFs

AE Roots CF

D2 + 3D + 2 = 0 m = −1, −2 c1 e−x + c2 e−2x

D2 − 4D + 4 = 0 m = 2, 2 (c1 + c2 x)e2x
D2 + 1 = 0 m = ±i c1 cos x + c2 sin x
D2 + 4 = 0 m = ±2i c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x
D2 − 2D + 2 = 0 m=1±i ex (c1 cos x + c2 sin x)
D2 − 2D + 1 = 0 m = 1, 1 (c1 + c2 x)ex
D2 + 2D + 1 = 0 m = −1, −1 (c1 + c2 x)e−x
D2 − 4D + 5 = 0 m=2±i e2x (c1 cos x + c2 sin x)
D2 − 4 = 0 m = ±2 c1 e2x + c2 e−2x
(D − 2)2 (D + 1) = 0 m = 2, 2, −1 (c1 + c2 x)e2x + c3 e−x
(D2 + 1)2 = 0 m = ±i (double) (c1 + c2 x) cos x + (c3 + c4 x) sin x
D3 + 6D2 + 11D + 6 = 0 m = −1, −2, −3 c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + c3 e−3x

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 7

1.1.4 Particular Integral: All Types

PI Formula Reference

Type X= Formula

1 0 P.I. = 0
eax xeax x2 eax
2 eax if f (a) ̸= 0; ′ if f (a) = 0; ′′
f (a) f (a) f (a)
′
if f (a) = 0

3 sin(ax) or cos(ax) Replace D2 → −a2 ; rationalize if linear D

remains
1 −x cos(ax)
Failure: sin(ax) = ;
D2 + a2 2a
1 x sin(ax)
cos(ax) =
D 2 + a2 2a
4 xm Factor out constant, expand [f (D)]−1 by bi-
nomial, operate on xm
1
5 eax · V eax · ·V (Shift Theorem)
f (D + a)
1 f ′ (D)
6 x·V x· ·V − ·V
f (D) [f (D)]2

Binomial Expansion for Type 4

(1 + u)−1 = 1 − u + u2 − u3 + · · · (1 − u)−1 = 1 + u + u2 + u3 + · · ·
(1 + u)−2 = 1 − 2u + 3u2 − 4u3 + · · · (1 − u)−2 = 1 + 2u + 3u2 + 4u3 + · · ·
Rule: When operating on xm , stop expansion at Dm (higher derivatives vanish).

1.1.5 Variation of Parameters — Master Formula

VPM Algorithm (Most Important)

d2 y dy
For the equation in standard form: + P + Qy = X
dx2 dx
Step 1: Solve y ′′ + P y ′ + Qy = 0 to get C.F. = c1 y1 + c2 y2 .
y y
Step 2: Wronskian: W = 1′ 2′ = y1 y2′ − y2 y1′
Z y1 y2 Z
y2 X y1 X
Step 3: u=− dx, v= dx
W W
Step 4: P.I. = u y1 + v y2
Step 5: C.S. = c1 y1 + c2 y2 + u y1 + v y2

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

8 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

x
Must use VPM when: X = tan ax, sec ax, csc ax, cot ax, ee , log x, 1/(1 +
ex ), sin(ex ).
Standard PI types fail for these — VPM always works.

1.1.6 Cauchy–Euler and Legendre’s Equations

Variable-Coefficient Equations
Cauchy–Euler: a0 x2 y ′′ + a1 xy ′ + a2 y = X
dy d2 y
Substitution: x = ez (z = ln x). Then: x = Dy, x2 2 = D(D − 1)y,
dx dx
d3 y
x3 = D(D − 1)(D − 2)y
dx3
Legendre’s: a0 (ax + b)2 y ′′ + a1 (ax + b)y ′ + a2 y = X
dy d2 y
Substitution: ax + b = ez . Then: (ax + b) = a Dy, (ax + b)2 2 = a2 D(D − 1)y
dx dx

1.1.7 VPM Results to Memorise

Six Standard VPM Results (Know by Heart)

DE W u, v P.I.

x x
y ′′ + 3y ′ + 2y = ee −e−3x − cos(ex ); e−2x · ee
ex cos(ex )−
sin(ex )

y ′′ + y = sec x tan x 1 x − tan x; x cos x − sin x +

ln | sec x| sin x ln | sec x|

y ′′ + y = 1
1+sin x 1 tan x − −1 − x cos x + sin x ln(1 +
x − sec x; sin x)
ln(1 +
sin x)

y ′′ − 2y ′ + y = ex sin x e2x x cos x − −ex sin x

sin x;
− cos x

y ′′ − 6y ′ + 9y = e3x /x2 e6x − ln x; −e3x (ln x + 1)

−1/x

y ′′ + 4y = tan 2x 2 see − cos42x ln | sec 2x + tan 2x|

Ex. E12

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 9

1.1.8 Standard Integrals for VPM

Must-Know Integrals

ˆ tan x dx = ln | sec x| ˆ
R R
x sin x dx = −x cos x + sin x
ˆ sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| ˆ
R R
x cos x dx = x sin x + cos x
ˆ csc x dx = ln | csc x − cot x| ˆ
R R R
u dv = uv − v du (IBP)
ˆ cot x dx = ln | sin x| ˆ
R R
t et dt = et (t − 1) + C
ˆ
x
R
ˆ ex sin x dx = e (sin x−cos x) t sin t dt = sin t − t cos t + C
R
2
ˆ
x
R
ˆ ex cos x dx = e (sin x+cos
R x) t cos t dt = cos t + t sin t + C
2

1.2 Theory
1.2.1 Why CF + PI?
The general solution decomposes into two parts because the ODE is linear. The CF
captures the homogeneous (natural) response — how the system behaves freely. The
PI captures the forced response to X. In engineering: CF ≈ transient response; PI ≈
steady-state response.

1.2.2 When Each PI Type Applies

Decision Flowchart for PI

Look at X, then choose:
1. X = 0? ⇒ Type 1 (P.I. = 0).
2. X = eax ? ⇒ Type 2. Check f (a); use failure formula if f (a) = 0.
3. X = sin(ax) or cos(ax)? ⇒ Type 3. Replace D2 → −a2 .
4. X = xm (polynomial)? ⇒ Type 4. Binomial expansion.
5. X = eax · V ? ⇒ Type 5 (Shift Theorem). Pull out eax , replace D → D + a.
x
6. X = sin(ex ), tan x, sec x, ee , log x? ⇒ VPM only.
7. Products: sin ax · cos bx — use trig identity first, then Type 3.
ax −ax ax −ax
8. Hyperbolic: cosh(ax) = e +e 2
, sinh(ax) = e −e2
— use Type 2.

1.2.3 Why the Shift Theorem Works

For f (D) [eax u] = eax f (D + a)u (proved by induction on derivatives of eax u). Therefore
1 1
f (D)
[eax V ] = eax · f (D+a) · V . This is why you “pull out” eax and replace D by D + a in
the remaining operator.

1.2.4 Why VPM Always Works

Standard Types 2–5 require X to be of specific forms. VPM treats the CF constants
c1 , c2 as functions of x (hence “variation of parameters”) and determines them via the
Wronskian system. It works for any continuous X.

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

10 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

1.3 Complementary Function — Solved Examples

Example CF1 — Distinct Real Roots
Solve (D3 + 6D2 + 11D + 6)y = 0.

Solution
A.E. : m3 + 6m2 + 11m + 6 = 0. Try m = −1: −1 + 6 − 11 + 6 = 0 ✓. Factor:
(m + 1)(m2 + 5m + 6) = (m + 1)(m + 2)(m + 3) = 0.

m = −1, −2, −3 (real, distinct).

C.S. = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + c3 e−3x

Example CF2 — Repeated Real Root

Solve (D2 − 4D + 4)y = 0.

Solution
A.E. : m2 − 4m + 4 = (m − 2)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 2, 2 (repeated).

C.S. = (c1 + c2 x)e2x

Example CF3 — Triple Repeated Root

Solve (D3 − 3D2 + 3D − 1)y = 0.

Solution
A.E. : m3 − 3m2 + 3m − 1 = (m − 1)3 = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 1, 1 (triple).

C.S. = (c1 + c2 x + c3 x2 )ex

Example CF4 — Pure Imaginary Roots

Solve (D2 + 4D + 5)y = 0.

Solution
√
−4 ± 16 − 20
A.E. : m2 + 4m + 5 = 0 ⇒ m = = −2 ± i.
2
α = −2, β = 1.
C.S. = e−2x (c1 cos x + c2 sin x)

Example CF5 — Mixed Roots (Pre-NEP Dec 2022 Q.1b)

Solve [(D − 2)2 (D + 1)]y = 0.

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 11

Solution
A.E. : (m − 2)2 (m + 1) = 0 ⇒ m = 2, 2, −1.

C.S. = (c1 + c2 x)e2x + c3 e−x

Example CF6 — Fourth-Order, Complex Repeated Roots

Solve (D4 + 8D2 + 16)y = 0.

Solution
(D4 + 8D2 + 16) = (D2 + 4)2 = 0 ⇒ m2 = −4 ⇒ m = ±2i (each repeated twice).
α = 0, β = 2, double complex roots.

C.S. = (c1 + c2 x) cos 2x + (c3 + c4 x) sin 2x

Example CF7 — Four Distinct Real Roots

Solve (D4 − 5D2 + 4)y = 0.

Solution
Let u = D2 : u2 − 5u + 4 = (u − 1)(u − 4) = 0 ⇒ D2 = 1 or D2 = 4.
D2 = 1 ⇒ m = ±1; D2 = 4 ⇒ m = ±2.

C.S. = c1 ex + c2 e−x + c3 e2x + c4 e−2x

1.4 Particular Integral — Type 2: X = eax

Example B1 — Standard (no failure)

Find P.I. for (D2 − 3D + 2)y = e3x .

Solution
f (D) = D2 − 3D + 2. f (3) = 9 − 9 + 2 = 2 ̸= 0.

e3x e3x
P.I. = =
f (3) 2

Example B2 — First Failure Case (Pre-NEP Dec 2022 Q.1b)

d2 y dy
Solve 2
− 4 + 4y = e2x .
dx dx

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

12 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

Solution
A.E. : (m − 2)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 2, 2. C.F. = (c1 + c2 x)e2x .
f (D) = (D − 2)2 . f (2) = 0 (failure). f ′ (D) = 2(D − 2), f ′ (2) = 0 (failure again).
f ′′ (D) = 2, f ′′ (2) = 2.
x2 e2x x2 e2x
P.I. = ′′ =
f (2) 2

2x x2 e2x
C.S. = (c1 + c2 x)e +
2

Example B3 — Single Failure Case

Solve (D2 + 3D + 2)y = e−x .

Solution
A.E. : (m + 1)(m + 2) = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −2. C.F. = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x .
f (−1) = (1 − 3 + 2) = 0 (failure). f ′ (D) = 2D + 3, f ′ (−1) = 1 ̸= 0.

x e−x
P.I. = ′
= x e−x
f (−1)

C.S. = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + x e−x

Example B4 — 2 cosh(2x) (Hyperbolic)

Solve D2 y − 4y = 2 cosh(2x).

Solution
2 cosh(2x) = e2x + e−2x . A.E. : m2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ m = ±2. C.F. = c1 e2x + c2 e−2x .
′ ′ x e2x
f (2) = 0 (failure); f (D) = 2D, f (2) = 4. P.I.1 = .
4
−2x
xe
f (−2) = 0 (failure); f ′ (−2) = −4. P.I.2 = .
−4
x e2x x e−2x x(e2x − e−2x ) x sinh(2x)
P.I. = − = =
4 4 4 2

x sinh(2x)
C.S. = c1 e2x + c2 e−2x +
2

Example B5 — Constant RHS (X = k)

Find P.I. for (D2 + 3D + 2)y = 5.

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 13

Solution
Write 5 = 5 e0·x . f (0) = 0 + 0 + 2 = 2.

5
P.I. =
2

Example B6 — Negative Exponential (May 2024 type)

Solve (D2 − D − 6)y = e−2x .

Solution
A.E. : (m − 3)(m + 2) = 0 ⇒ m = 3, −2. C.F. = c1 e3x + c2 e−2x .
f (−2) = 4 + 2 − 6 = 0 (failure). f ′ (D) = 2D − 1, f ′ (−2) = −5.

x e−2x
P.I. =
−5

x e−2x
C.S. = c1 e3x + c2 e−2x −
5

1.5 Particular Integral — Type 3: X = sin(ax) or

cos(ax)
Example C1 — Standard Sine (Pre-NEP Dec 2022)
Solve (D2 − 5D + 6)y = sin 3x.

Solution
A.E. : m = 2, 3. C.F. = c1 e2x + c2 e3x .
1
P.I. = 2 sin 3x. Replace D2 → −9:
D − 5D + 6
sin 3x sin 3x
= =
−9 − 5D + 6 −3 − 5D
Rationalize with (−3 + 5D):

(−3 + 5D) sin 3x −3 sin 3x + 15 cos 3x −3 sin 3x + 15 cos 3x − sin 3x + 5 cos 3x

= 2 2
= = =
(−3) − (5D) 9 − 25(−9) 234 78

5 cos 3x − sin 3x
C.S. = c1 e2x + c2 e3x +
78

Example C2 — Failure Case: cos 2x (Classic PYQ)

Solve (D2 + 4)y = cos 2x.

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

14 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

Solution
A.E. : m = ±2i. C.F. = c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x.
Replace D2 → −4: denominator = −4 + 4 = 0 (failure).
Use failure formula with a = 2:
1 x sin 2x x sin 2x
cos 2x = =
D2 +4 2·2 4

x sin 2x
C.S. = c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x +
4

Example C3 — Failure Case: sin x with D2 + 1

Solve y ′′ + y = sin x.

Solution
C.F. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x.
D2 → −1: denom = −1 + 1 = 0 (failure). Use:
1 −x cos x −x cos x
sin x = =
D2 +1 2·1 2
x cos x
C.S. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x −
2

Example C4 — sin x · sin 2x (Trig Identity, PYQ)

d2 y
Solve + y = sin x sin 2x.
dx2

Solution
Use sin A sin B = 21 [cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)]:

sin x sin 2x = 21 [cos(−x) − cos 3x] = 21 [cos x − cos 3x]

C.F. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x. P.I. = P.I.1 + P.I.2 .

1 1 x sin x x sin x
P.I.1 = 2 · cos2 x : D2 → −1, denom= 0 (failure). P.I.1 = · = .
D +1 2 2 4
1 − cos 3x cos 3x
P.I.2 = 2 · − cos2
3x
: D2 → −9, denom= −8. P.I.2 = = .
D +1 2(−8) 16

x sin x cos 3x
C.S. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x + +
4 16

Example C5 — cos2 x (Double-Angle Formula)

Find P.I. for (D2 + 3D + 2)y = cos2 x.

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 15

Solution
1+cos 2x
cos2 x = 2
.
P.I. = P.I.1 + P.I.2 .
1 1 1 1 1
P.I.1 = 2 · = = = .
D + 3D + 2 2 2f (0) 2·2 4
1 cos 2x
P.I.2 = 2 · . Replace D2 → −4:
D + 3D + 2 2
cos 2x cos 2x (3D + 2) cos 2x −6 sin 2x + 2 cos 2x −6 sin 2x + 2 co
= = = = =
2(−4 + 3D + 2) 2(3D − 2) 2(9D2 − 4) D2 →−4 2(−36 − 4) −80

1 3 sin 2x − cos 2x
P.I. = +
4 40

Example C6 — Sine with D3 Operator

Find P.I. for (D3 − D2 + 4D − 4)y = sin 2x.

Solution
Replace D2 → −4 and D3 = D · D2 → −4D:

f (D) D2 →−4
= −4D − (−4) + 4D − 4 = 4 − 4 = 0 (failure).

Factor: D3 − D2 + 4D − 4 = (D − 1)(D2 + 4). At failure, the factor causing it is

(D2 + 4).
1 −x cos 2x
Use: 2 sin 2x = .
D +4 4
1 1 −x cos 2x
Then: 2
sin 2x = · .
(D − 1)(D + 4) D−1 4
1 −x cos 2x
(−x cos 2x/4) = ex e−x · 1
f = eax e−ax f dx).
R R
Let I = dx (using D−a
DR −1 4
By IBP: e−x x cos 2x dx — this is a standard IBP chain (lengthy).
 
−x −x cos 2x 2x sin 2x cos 2x − 4 sin 2x
Z
−x
e x cos 2x dx = e − + + ···
5 5 25

Final answer (TCET-level detail):

1
P.I. = (−x cos 2x + 2x sin 2x) + · · ·
20

(In exams, stop at this recognition level and cite the method.)

1.6 Particular Integral — Type 4 & 5: xm and eaxV

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations
16 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

1.6.1 Type 4: X = xm

Example D1 — x2 , Repeated Root Denominator

Find P.I. for (D2 − 4D + 4)y = x2 .

Solution
1 2 1
P.I. = x = x2 .
(D − 2)2 4(1 − D/2)2
(1 − D/2)−2 = 1 + D + 43 D2 + · · · Operate on x2 :

= x2 + D(x2 ) + 43 D2 (x2 ) = x2 + 2x + 43 · 2 = x2 + 2x + 3
2

x2 + 2x + 3/2 x2 x 3
P.I. = = + +
4 4 2 8

Example D2 — 3x2 − 5x (Post-NEP May 2025 Q.2a)

Find P.I. for (D3 − 2D + 4)y = 3x2 − 5x.

Solution
1 1 1
P.I. = 3
(3x2 − 5x) = · 3
(3x2 − 5x).
4 + D − 2D 4 1 + (D − 2D)/4
Let u = (D3 − 2D)/4. (1 + u)−1 ≈ 1 − u + u2 − · · · operating on 3x2 − 5x (need up
to D2 ):
3 3 2 2
−u(3x2 −5x) = − (D −2D)
4
(3x2 −5x) = − D (3x4 −5x) + 2D(3x4 −5x) = 0+ 2(6x−5)
4
= 6x−5
2
=
5
3x − 2 .
2
u2 ≈ (−2D/4)2 = D2 /4: D4 (3x2 − 5x) = 46 = 32 .
 2 3x2 − 2x − 1
1
(3x − 5x) + (3x − 52 ) + 32 = 14 (3x2 − 2x − 1) =

P.I. = 4
4
3x2 − 2x − 1
P.I. =
4

Example D3 — x3 , Simple Denominator

Find P.I. for (D2 − 4D + 4)y = x3 .

Solution
1 1
P.I. = 2
x3 = (1 − D/2)−2 x3 .
(D − 2) 4
2 3
−2
(1 − D/2) = 1 + D + 3D4 + D2 + · · ·
= x3 + 3x2 + 34 (6x) + 12 (6) = x3 + 3x2 + 9x
2
+ 3.

x3 + 3x2 + 9x/2 + 3
P.I. =
4

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 17

1.6.2 Type 5: X = eax V (Shift Theorem)

Example D4 — ex cos x (Pre-NEP Dec 2022 Q.4c, part)

Find P.I. for (D2 + 2)y = ex cos x.

Solution
1 1
Shift: P.I. = ex · 2
cos x = ex · 2 cos x.
(D + 1) + 2 D + 2D + 3
cos x cos x ex cos x
Replace D2 → −1: P.I. = ex · = ex · = · .
−1 + 2D + 3 2D + 2 2 D+1
1 (D − 1) (D − 1) cos x − sin x − cos x
cos x = 2
cos x D2 →−1 = = =
D+1 D −1 −2 −2
sin x + cos x
.
2
ex (sin x + cos x)
P.I. =
4

Example D5 — x2 e3x (TCET Resource standard)

d2 y
Find P.I. for 2 + 2y = x2 e3x .
dx

Solution
1 1
Shift: P.I. = e3x · 2
x 2
= e 3x
· 2
x2 .
(D + 3) + 2 D + 6D + 11
e3x 1
Factor: = · x2 .
11 1 + (6D + D2 )/11
(1 + u)−1 ≈ 1 − u + u2 where u = (6D + D2 )/11:
2
−u · x2 = − 6D+D11
x2 = − 12x+2 11
2 36D2 2
u2 · x2 = 6D 72

2
11
x = 121
x = 121

e3x 2 12x + 2 e3x 2 12x

   
72 50
P.I. = x − + = x − +
11 11 121 11 11 121
 2 
x 12x 50
P.I. = e3x − +
11 121 1331

Example D6 — e2x sin x (Shift then Type 3)

Find P.I. for (D2 − 4D + 5)y = e2x sin x.

Solution
1 1
Shift: P.I. = e2x · sin x = e2x · 2 sin x.
(D + 2)2 − 4(D + 2) + 5 D +1

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

18 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

Replace D2 → −1: denom = −1 + 1 = 0 (failure).

1 −x cos x
sin x =
D2 +1 2

x e2x cos x
P.I. = −
2

Example D7 — Complete Solve: e2x + cos 3x (Dec 2022 Q.1b type)

Solve (D2 − 4D + 4)y = e2x + cos 3x.

Solution
A.E. : (m − 2)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 2, 2. C.F. = (c1 + c2 x)e2x .
e2x ′ ′′ x2 e2x
P.I.1 = : f (2) = 0, f (2) = 0, f (2) = 2. P.I.1 = .
(D − 2)2 2
cos 3x cos 3x cos 3x
P.I.2 = 2 : D2 → −9: = = . Rationalize:
D − 4D + 4 −9 − 4D + 4 −5 − 4D
(−5 + 4D) cos 3x −5 cos 3x − 12 sin 3x −5 cos 3x − 12 sin 3x
= = =
25 − 16D2 D2 →−9 25 + 144 169

x2 e2x 5 cos 3x + 12 sin 3x

C.S. = (c1 + c2 x)e2x + −
2 169

Example D8 — Combined ex cos x + x2 e3x (Pre-NEP Dec 2022 Q.4c)

Find P.I. for (D2 + 2)y = ex cos x + x2 e3x .

Solution
P.I. = P.I.1 + P.I.2 .
ex (sin x + cos x)
P.I.1 : From Example D4 above: P.I.1 = .
 24 
3x x 12x 50
P.I.2 : From Example D5 above: P.I.2 = e − + .
11 121 1331
ex (sin x + cos x)
 2 
3x x 12x 50
P.I. = +e − +
4 11 121 1331

Example D9 — e−x log x (Type 5 into 1/D2 )

Find P.I. for (D + 1)2 y = e−x log x.

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 19

Solution
Shift (a = −1, replace D → D − 1):
ZZ
−x 1
P.I. = e · 2 log x = e−x log x dx dx
D

x2 x2 x2 x2
 
R R 3
log x dx = x log x − x. (x log x − x) dx = log x − − = log x − .
2 4 2 2 2

x2 e−x
 
3
P.I. = log x −
2 2

Example D10 — (1 + x2 )e2x (Shift then binomial)

Find P.I. for (D2 − 7D + 6)y = (1 + x2 )e2x .

Solution
1 e2x 1
Shift: P.I. = e2x · 2
(1 + x 2
) = − · (1 + x2 ).
D − 3D − 4 4 1 − (3D − D2 )/4
Let u = (3D − D2 )/4: (1 + u)−1 ≈ 1 − u + u2 :
2 2
u(1 + x2 ) = 3D−D
4
(1 + x2 ) = 6x−24
= 3x−12
. u2 (1 + x2 ) ≈ 9D
16
(1 + x2 ) = 9·2
16
= 98 .

e2x e2x 2 3x 21
   
2 3x − 1 9
P.I. = − (1 + x ) − + =− x − +
4 2 8 4 2 8
 2 
x 3x 21
P.I. = e2x − + −
4 8 32

1.7 Variation of Parameters (VPM)

Before Every VPM Problem
Step 0 (Critical): Ensure the DE is in standard form with coefficient of y ′′ equal to
1. If the original equation is 2y ′′ + · · · , divide every term by 2 first. Failing to do this
gives wrong Wronskian and zero marks.

x
Example E1 — (D2 + 3D + 2)y = ee (Highest-Frequency PYQ, Dec 2022 Q.1d / Jun 2

Solution
A.E. : (m + 1)(m + 2) = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −2.
x
y1 = e−x , y2 = e−2x , X = ee .

e−x e−2x
W = = −2e−3x + e−3x = −e−3x .
−e−x −2e−2x

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

20 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

x
e−2x · ee
Z Z
x x
dx = ex · ee dx. Let t = ex , dt = ex dx: = et dt = et = ee .
R
u=− −3x
Z −x −eex
e ·e
Z
2x ex
v= dx = − e · e dx. Let t = ex , dt = ex dx, e2x = t2 , dx = dt/t:
−e−3x
Z
x
= − t · et dt = −(tet − et ) = −et (t − 1) = −ee (ex − 1).

x x x x
P.I. = u y1 + v y2 = ee · e−x + [−ee (ex − 1)] · e−2x = ee [e−x − e−x + e−2x ] = e−2x · ee .
x
C.S. = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x + e−2x · ee

Example E2 — (D2 + 1)y = sec x tan x (Pre-NEP Dec 2022 Q.2c)

Solution
y1 = cos x, y2 = sin x, X = sec x tan x.

W = cos x cos x − sin x(− sin x) = 1.

R R R
u = − sin x · sec x tan x dx = − tan2 x dx = − (sec2 x − 1) dx = −(tan x − x) =
x − tan
R x. R
v = cos x · sec x tan x dx = tan x dx = ln | sec x|.

P.I. = (x − tan x) cos x + ln | sec x| · sin x = x cos x − sin x + sin x ln | sec x|.
C.S. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x + x cos x − sin x + sin x ln | sec x|

1
Example E3 — (D2 + 1)y = (TCET Sample)
1 + sin x

Solution
1
y1 = cos x, y2 = sin x, W = 1, X = .
Z Z  1 + sinx Z
sin x 1 dx
u=− dx = − 1− dx = −x + .
1 + sinZx 1 + sin x 1 + sin x
1 − sin x
Z
dx
= dx = tan x − sec x.
1 + sin x cos2 x
So uZ= −x + tan x − sec x.
cos x
v= dx. Let t = 1 + sin x: = ln |1 + sin x|.
1 + sin x

P.I. = (tan x−x−sec x) cos x+ln(1+sin x) sin x = sin x−1−x cos x+sin x ln(1+sin x).

C.S. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x − 1 − x cos x + sin x ln(1 + sin x)

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 21

Example E4 — (D2 − 2D + 1)y = ex sin x (May 2024 Q.5c — 8 marks)

Solution
A.E. : (m − 1)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 1. y1 = ex , y2 = xex , X = ex sin x.

W = ex (ex + xex ) − xex · ex = e2x (1 + x) − xe2x = e2x .

xex · ex sin x
Z Z
u=− 2x
dx = − x sin x dx = −(−x cos x + sin x) = x cos x − sin x.
Z x x e
e · e sin x
Z
v= dx = sin x dx = − cos x.
e2x

P.I. = (x cos x − sin x)ex + (− cos x) · xex = xex cos x − ex sin x − xex cos x = −ex sin x.

C.S. = (c1 + c2 x)ex − ex sin x

d2 y dy e3x
Example E5 — − 6 + 9y = 2 (TCET Resource, PYQ)
dx2 dx x

Solution
A.E. : (m − 3)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 3, 3. y1 = e3x , y2 = xe3x , X = e3x /x2 .

W = e3x (e3x + 3xe3x ) − xe3x · 3e3x = e6x (1 + 3x − 3x) = e6x .

xe3x · e3x /x2

Z Z
1
u=− 6x
dx = − dx = − ln x.
Z 3x 3xe 2 x
e · e /x
Z
1 1
v= dx = dx = − .
e6x x2 x
 
1
P.I. = (− ln x)e + − xe3x = −e3x ln x − e3x = −e3x (ln x + 1).
3x
x

C.S. = (c1 + c2 x)e3x − e3x (ln x + 1)

Example E6 — (D2 + 4)y = tan 2x (Classic VPM)

Solution
y1 = cos 2x, y2 = sin 2x, X = tan 2x.

W = 2 cos2 2x + 2 sin2 2x = 2.
sin 2x · tan 2x sin2 2x
Z Z Z
1 1
u = − dx = − dx = − (sec 2x − cos 2x) dx =
2 2 cos 2x 2
1 sin 2x
− ln | sec 2x + tan 2x| + .
4 4

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

22 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

cos 2x · tan 2x
Z Z
1 cos 2x
v= dx = sin 2x dx = − .
2 2 4
   
ln | sec 2x + tan 2x| sin 2x cos 2x cos 2x
P.I. = − + cos 2x+ − sin 2x = − ln | sec 2x+tan 2x|.
4 4 4 4

cos 2x
C.S. = c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x − ln | sec 2x + tan 2x|
4

Example E7 — (D2 + 1)y = sec2 x

Solution
2
y1 = cos
R x, y2 = 2sin x, W =R 1, X = sec x.
u = R− sin x sec x dx = R − tan x sec x dx = − sec x.
v = cos x sec2 x dx = sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x|.

P.I. = − sec x cos x + sin x ln | sec x + tan x| = −1 + sin x ln | sec x + tan x|.
C.S. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x − 1 + sin x ln | sec x + tan x|

2
Example E8 — (D2 − 1)y = (TCET Resource)
1 + ex

Solution
y1 = exZ, y2 = e−x , X = 2/(1 + Zex ). W = ex (−e−x ) − e−x ex = −2.
e−x · 2/(1 + ex ) e−x
u=− dx = x
dx.
−2 Z1 + e Z
x −x 1/t dt dt
Let t = e , dx = dt/t, e = 1/t: · = 2
.
1+t t t (1 + t)
1 −1 1 1 1
Partial fractions: 2 = + 2 + . u = − ln t − + ln(1 + t) =
t (1 + t) t t 1+t t
−x x
−x − e
Z x + ln(1 + e ).
e · 2/(1 + ex ) ex
Z
v= dx = − x
dx = − ln(1 + ex ).
−2 1+e
P.I. = uex + ve−x = [−x − e−x + ln(1 + ex )]ex + [− ln(1 + ex )]e−x
= −xex − 1 + ex ln(1 + ex ) − e−x ln(1 + ex ) = −1 − xex + (ex − e−x ) ln(1 + ex ).
C.S. = c1 ex + c2 e−x − 1 − xex + (ex − e−x ) ln(1 + ex )

1
Example E9 — (D2 + 1)y =
1 + cos x

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 23

Solution
y1 = cos x, y2 = sin x, W = 1, X = 1/(1 + cos x).
2
Use 1 + cosZ x = 2 cos (x/2): Z Z
sin x 2 sin(x/2) cos(x/2)
u = − dx = − dx = − tan(x/2) dx =
2 cos2 (x/2) 2 cos2 (x/2)
2 ln | cos(x/2)|.
2 cos2 (x/2) − 1
Z Z Z  
cos x 1 2
v = dx = dx = 1 − sec (x/2) dx = x −
2 cos2 (x/2) 2 cos2 (x/2) 2
tan(x/2).

P.I. = 2 cos x ln | cos(x/2)| + (x − tan(x/2)) sin x.

C.S. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x + 2 cos x ln | cos(x/2)| + x sin x − sin x tan(x/2)

1
Example E10 — (D2 + 9)y = (May 2024 Q.5c style)
1 + sin 3x

Solution
2 2
y1 = cosZ3x, y2 = sin 3x. W = 3Z cos  3x + 3 sin 3x  = 3.
1 sin 3x 1 1
u=− dx = − 1− dx.
3 1 + sin
Z 3x 3 1 + sin 3x
1 − sin 3x
Z
dx tan 3x sec 3x
= 2
dx = − .
1 + sin 3x cos 3x  3 3
1 tan 3x sec 3x x tan 3x sec 3x
u=− x− + =− + − .
Z3 3 3 3 9 9
1 cos 3x 1
v= dx. Let t = 1 + sin 3x: = ln |1 + sin 3x|.
3 1 + sin 3x 9
 
x tan 3x sec 3x ln |1 + sin 3x|
P.I. = − + − cos 3x + sin 3x.
3 9 9 9
x cos 3x sin 3x 1 sin 3x
C.S. = c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x − + − + ln |1 + sin 3x|
3 9 9 9

Example E11 — (D2 − y) = e−x sin(e−x ) + cos(e−x ) (TCET Exercise)

Solution
y1 = exZ, y2 = e−x , W = −2, −x −x
Z X = e sin(e ) + cos(e ).
−x
x
e X 1
[ex · e−x sin(e−x ) + ex cos(e−x )] dx = − 12 [sin(e−x ) +
R
v = dx = −
−2 2
eRx cos(e−x )] dx.
ex cos(e−x )dx: let t = e−x , dt = −e−x dx = −dx/ex , so ex dx = −dt/t2 : = cos t ·
R

(−dt/t2 ) — non-elementary in general.

However, direct verification: if yp = −ex sin(e−x ), then: yp′ = −ex sin(e−x ) +
ex cos(e−x )e−x = −ex sin(e−x ) + cos(e−x ). yp′′ = −ex sin(e−x ) + cos(e−x ) −

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

24 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

sin(e−x )e−x (−1) · ex − e−x sin(e−x )ex = yp′′ − yp = e−x sin(e−x ) + cos(e−x ) = X.
✓
C.S. = c1 ex + c2 e−x − ex sin(e−x )

Example E12 — (D2 + 1)y = csc x cot x

Solution
y1 = cos
R x, y2 = sin x, WR = 1, X = csc x cot x = cos x/ sin2 x.
sin x cos x
u = R− sin2 x R − 2 cot x dxR= − 2ln | sin x|.
dx =
cos x·cos x
v= sin2 x
dx = cot x dx = (csc x − 1) dx = − cot x − x.

P.I. = − cos x ln | sin x| + (− cot x − x) sin x = − cos x ln | sin x| − cos x − x sin x.

C.S. = c1 cos x + c2 sin x − cos x ln | sin x| − cos x − x sin x

Example E13 — (D2 + a2 )y = sec(ax) (Generalised, TCET HW)

Solution
y1 = cos(ax), y2 = sin(ax), W = a. Z
ln | cos(ax)|
Z
1 1
u=− sin(ax) sec(ax) dx = − tan(ax) dx = .
a
Z a a2
1 x
v= cos(ax) sec(ax) dx = .
a a
cos(ax) x sin(ax)
P.I. = 2
ln | cos(ax)| + .
a a
cos(ax) x sin(ax)
C.S. = c1 cos(ax) + c2 sin(ax) + 2
ln | cos(ax)| +
a a

Example E14 — (D2 − 2D + 1)y = ex log x (VPM with log)

Solution
y1 = exZ, y2 = xex , W = e2x , XZ = ex log x.
xex · ex log x
u=− dx = − x log x dx.
e2x
R x2 x2 x2 x2
IBP: x log x dx = log x − . u = − log x + .
Z x x 2 Z 4 2 4
e · e log x
v= dx = log x dx = x log x − x.
e2x
 2
x log x x2 x
 2
3x2
 
x x x log x 2 2
P.I. = − + e + (x log x − x) · xe = e − + x log x − x
2 4 2 4

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 25

x2 log x x2 x
 
Wait, recompute: uy1 + vy2 = − + e + (x log x − x)xex =
 2 2 4
x log x x2
 2
x log x 3x2
 
x 2 2 x
e − + + x log x − x = e − .
2 4 2 4

x2 e x
C.S. = (c1 + c2 x)ex + (2 log x − 3)
4

1.8 Cauchy–Euler Equations

Example F1 — x2 y ′′ − xy ′ + 4y = cos(log x) + x sin(log x) (TCET Sample)

Solution
Put x = ez : xy ′ = Dy, x2 y ′′ = D(D − 1)y. Equation becomes:

[D(D − 1) − D + 4]y = cos z + ez sin z =⇒ (D2 − 2D + 4)y = cos z + ez sin z.

√ √ √
A.E. : D2 − 2D + 4 = 0 ⇒ D = 1 ± 3 i. C.F. = ez (c1 cos 3z + c2 sin 3z).
cos z cos z (3 + 2D) cos z 3 cos z − 2 sin z
P.I.1 = 2 D 2 →−1 = = = .
D −z 2D + 4 3 − 2D 9+4 13z
e sin z sin z e sin z
P.I.2 = 2 . Shift (D → D + 1): = ez 2 D 2 →−1 = .
D − 2D + 4 D +3 2
√ √ 3 cos z − 2 sin z ez sin z
C.S. in z: ez (c1 cos 3z + c2 sin 3z) + + .
z
13 2
Replace z = log x, e = x:
h √ √ i 3 cos(ln x) − 2 sin(ln x) x sin(ln x)
y = x c1 cos( 3 ln x) + c2 sin( 3 ln x) + +
13 2

Example F2 — x2 y ′′ − 2xy ′ + 2y = x − 1
x

Solution
Put x = ez : (D2 − 3D + 2)y = ez − e−z . A.E. : (D − 1)(D − 2) = 0 ⇒ D = 1, 2.
C.F. = c1 ez + c2 e2z .
ez
P.I.1 = 2 : f (1) = 1 − 3 + 2 = 0, f ′ (1) = −1. P.I.1 = −zez .
D − 3D + 2
e−z e−z
P.I.2 = 2 : f (−1) = 1 + 3 + 2 = 6. P.I.2 = .
D − 3D + 2 6
C.S. in z: c1 ez + c2 e2z − zez + e−z /6.
Replace z = ln x:
1
y = c1 x + c2 x2 − x ln x +
6x

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

26 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

ln x
Example F3 — x2 y ′′ + 5xy ′ + 3y = (Pre-NEP Dec 2024 Q.6a)
x2

Solution
Put x = ez : (D2 + 4D + 3)y = ze−2z . A.E. : (D + 1)(D + 3) = 0 ⇒ D = −1, −3.
C.F. = c1 e−z + c2 e−3z .
ze−2z −2z z
P.I. = . Shift (D → D − 2): = e =
D2 + 4D + 3 (D − 2)2 + 4(D − 2) + 3
z z
e−2z 2 = −e−2z .
D −1 1 − D2
(1 − D2 )−1 ≈ 1 + D2 : z + D2 (z) = z + 0 = z.
P.I. = −ze−2z .
C.S. in z: c1 e−z + c2 e−3z − ze−2z .
Replace z = ln x, e−z = x−1 , e−2z = x−2 :

c1 c2 ln x
y= + 3− 2
x x x

Example F4 — x2 y ′′ + xy ′ − y = x2 ex (Variation inside Cauchy)

Solution
z
Put x = ez : (D2 −1)y = e2z ·ee . A.E. : D2 −1 = 0 ⇒ D = ±1. C.F. = c1 ez +c2 e−z .
z
Use VPM:
Z −z y1 = ezz , y2 = e−z , X = e2z ee , zW = −2.
e e2z ee ee
Z
1 z
u=− dz = ez ee dz = .
Z z 2z ez−2 2
Z 2
ee e 1 z
v= dz = − e3z ee dz.
−2 2
ez
Let t = e : = h− 2 t e dt = − 21 et (ti2 − 2t + 2) = − e2 (e2z − 2ez + 2).
1
z
R 2 t
ez ez ez ee
z ez z z
P.I. = e2 ·ez + − e2 (e2z − 2ez + 2) e−z = 2
− e2 (ez −2+2e−z ) = ee (1−e−z )ee . . .
Replace ez = x:
c2
y = c1 x + + xex (1 − 2/x + · · · ) (Cauchy-VPM combination)
x

(This level of combination is rarely set; knowing the substitution step earns full marks.)

1.9 Legendre’s Equations

Example G1 — (1 + x)2 y ′′ + (1 + x)y ′ + y = 4 cos[ln(1 + x)] (Pre-NEP Dec 2024)

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 27

Solution
Put 1 + x = ez (z = ln(1 + x)): (D2 + 1)y = 4 cos z.
A.E. : D2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ D = ±i. C.F. = c1 cos z + c2 sin z.
4 cos z x sin z
P.I. = 2 : D2 → −1, denom= 0 (failure). P.I. = 4 · = 2z sin z.
D +1 2
C.S. in z: c1 cos z + c2 sin z + 2z sin z.
Replace z = ln(1 + x):

y = c1 cos[ln(1 + x)] + c2 sin[ln(1 + x)] + 2 ln(1 + x) sin[ln(1 + x)]

Example G2 — (3x + 2)2 y ′′ + 3(3x + 2)y ′ − 36y = 3x2 + 4x + 1 (TCET Sample)

Solution
Put 3x + 2 = ez : (3x + 2)y ′ = 3Dy, (3x + 2)2 y ′′ = 9D(D − 1)y.

2 z
[9D(D − 1) + 9D − 36]y = e 3−2 + 4(e 3−2) + 1 = e9 + 8e9 − 11
z 2z z
9
.
2 e2z 8ez 11 2 e2z 8ez 11
(9D − 36)y = 9 + 9 − 9 , i.e., (D − 4)y = 81 + 81 − 81 .
A.E. : D = ±2. C.F. = c1 e2z + c2 e−2z .
ze2z ze2z
P.I.1 : f (2) = 0, f ′ (2) = 4. P.I.1 = = .
z
81 · 4 z 324
8e 8e
P.I.2 : f (1) = −3. P.I.2 = =− .
81(−3) 243
−11/81 11
P.I.3 : f (0) = −4. P.I.3 = = .
−4 324
Replace z = ln(3x + 2), ez = 3x + 2:

c2 (3x + 2)2 ln(3x + 2) 8(3x + 2) 11

y = c1 (3x + 2)2 + 2
+ − +
(3x + 2) 324 243 324

Example G3 — (2x + 1)2 y ′′ − 2(2x + 1)y ′ − 12y = 6x

Solution
Put 2x + 1 = ez , so x = (ez − 1)/2. (2x + 1)y ′ = 2Dy, (2x + 1)2 y ′′ = 4D(D − 1)y.
[4D(D − 1) − 4D − 12]y = 3(ez − 1) (4D2 − 8D − 12)y = 3ez − 3, i.e., (D2 − 2D − 3)y =
3ez − 3
.
4
A.E. : (D − 3)(D + 1) = 0 ⇒ D = 3, −1. C.F. = c1 e3z + c2 e−z .
3ez /4 3ez 3ez
P.I.1 = 2 : f (1) = 1 − 2 − 3 = −4. P.I.1 = = − .
D − 2D − 3 D=1 4(−4) 16
−3/4 −3/4 1
P.I.2 = 2 D=0
: f (0) = −3. P.I.2 = = .
D − 2D − 3 z
−3 4
3e 1
C.S. in z: c1 e3z + c2 e−z − + .
16 4

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

28 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

Replace ez = 2x + 1, e3z = (2x + 1)3 , e−z = (2x + 1)−1 :

c2 3(2x + 1) 1
y = c1 (2x + 1)3 + − +
2x + 1 16 4

1.10 Mixed Module Practice (NEP-2020)

Mixed M1 — Post-NEP Q.1 Compulsory Style
(a) Solve (D2 + 3D + 2)y = sin(ex ). [3 marks]
(b) Solve (2x2 + 3y 2 − 7)x dx + (3x2 + 2y 2 − 8)y dy = 0. [3 marks (Module 1)]

Solution (a) — VPM

y1 =Re−x , y2 = e−2x , W = −e−3x , X = sin(ex ).
u = eRx sin(ex ) dx = − cos(ex ). (LetRt = ex .)
v = − e2x sin(ex ) dx; let t = ex : = − t sin t dt = t cos t − sin t = ex cos(ex ) − sin(ex ).
P.I. = − cos(ex )e−x + [ex cos(ex ) − sin(ex )]e−2x = −e−2x sin(ex ).

C.S. = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x − e−2x sin(ex )

Solution (b) — Module 1 Exact DE

M = x(2x2 + 3y 2 − 7), N = y(3x2 + 2y 2 − 8). ∂M/∂y = 6xy = ∂N/∂x. ✓C.S. :
x4 3x2 y 2 7x2 y 4
+ − + − 4y 2 = C.
2 2 2 2

Mixed M2 — HOD complete (8-mark exam question)

Solve (D2 − 2D + 1)y = ex sin x completely. Then verify by substitution. [8 marks]

Solution
CF: (m − 1)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 1. C.F. = (c1 + c2 x)ex .
VPM: From Example E4: P.I. = −ex sin x.
CS: y = (c1 + c2 x)ex − ex sin x .
Verification: Let yp = −ex sin x. yp′ = −ex sin x − ex cos x. yp′′ = −ex sin x −
ex cos x − ex cos x + ex sin x = −2ex cos x. yp′′ − 2yp′ + yp = −2ex cos x − 2(−ex sin x −
ex cos x) + (−ex sin x) = −2ex cos x + 2ex sin x + 2ex cos x − ex sin x = ex sin x ✓.

1.11 PYQ Mapping & Frequency Analysis

Paper Q. Type Problem Marks

Dec 2022 1d VPM (D2 + 3D + 2)y = sin(ex ) 5
Dec 2022 2c VPM y ′′ + y = sec x tan x 8

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 29

Dec 2022 4c PI (Type 5) (D2 + 2)y = ex cos x + x2 e3x 8

Dec 2022 5b PI (Type 3) (D2 + 1)y = 2x + sin x sin 2x 6
Jun 2022 2B VPM y ′′ + 3y ′ + 2y = sin(ex ) 5
Jun 2022 3B PI (D2 − 2D + 1)y = x2 e3x 5
May 2024 1b CF+PI (D2 − 4D + 4)y = e2x + cos 3x 5
May 2024 2a PI (Type 4) (D3 − 2D + 4)y = 3x2 − 5x 6
May 2024 5c VPM (D2 − 2D + 1)y = ex sin x 8
Dec 2024 1b CF+PI (D2 − 4D + 4)y = e2x + cos 3x 5
Dec 2024 2a CF+PI y ′′ − y = x2 sin 3x 6
Dec 2024 5c VPM (D2 + 9)y = 1/(1 + sin 3x) 8
Dec 2024 6a Cauchy x2 y ′′ + 5xy ′ + 3y = ln x/x2 6
May 2025 1f CF (D3 − 5D2 + 8D − 4)y = 0 3
x
May 2025 2c VPM (D2 + 3D + 2)y = ee 6
May 2025 5c VPM (D2 − 2D + 1)y = ex sin x 6
May 2025 6a CF+PI (D2 − 4D + 4)y = e2x sin 2x 4
Table 1.1: PYQ Mapping for Chapter 2 (2022–2025)

Frequency Heatmap
x
■■■ Very High (every paper): VPM: (D2 + 3D + 2)y = ee or sin(ex ). VPM:
y ′′ + y = sec x tan x. VPM: (D2 − 2D + 1)y = ex sin x.
■■ High (3–4 papers): CF+PI: (D2 − 4D + 4)y = e2x + trig. PI Type 5: eax V
combinations. Cauchy-Euler: x2 y ′′ + . . .
■ Moderate (2 papers): PI Type 4: polynomial RHS. Legendre’s: (ax + b)2 y ′′ +
. . . y ′′ + 4y = tan 2x (VPM).

1.12 High-Probability Questions (Exam Predictor)

Tier 1 — Near Certain to Appear (8 marks each)
x
1. VPM: (D2 + 3D + 2)y = ee [Q.2c or Q.5c]
2. VPM: (D2 + 1)y = sec x tan x or (D2 + 1)y = 1/(1 + sin x) [Q.2c or Q.5c]
3. VPM: (D2 − 2D + 1)y = ex sin x [Q.5c]
4. CF+PI: (D2 − 4D + 4)y = e2x + cos 3x [Q.1b, 5 marks]

Tier 2 — Very Likely (6–8 marks)

1. PI Type 5: (D2 + 2)y = ex cos x + x2 e3x
2. Cauchy–Euler: x2 y ′′ − xy ′ + 4y = cos(ln x)
3. VPM: (D2 − 6D + 9)y = e3x /x2
4. VPM: (D2 + 4)y = tan 2x
5. Legendre’s: (1 + x)2 y ′′ + (1 + x)y ′ + y = 4 cos[ln(1 + x)]

1.13 Final Summary Table

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

30 Applied Mathematics II — TCET / MU

Topic Key Formula Exam Note

CF: Distinct c1 em1 x + c2 em2 x Factorise AE; try rational roots

roots

CF: Repeated (c1 + c2 x)emx Triple: add c3 x2

root m

CF: Complex eαx (c1 cos βx + c2 sin βx) Pure imaginary: drop e0x = 1
α ± iβ

PI Type 2 eax /f (a) If f (a) = 0: multiply by x

PI Type 3 Replace D2 → −a2 Rationalize remaining D

PI Failure −x cos(ax)/(2a) or Only when denom= D2 + a2 ex-

(sin / cos) x sin(ax)/(2a) actly

PI Type 4 Binomial expand Stop at Dm ; factor constant first

(f (D))−1

PI Type 5 eax · [1/f (D + a)] · V Shift D → D + a after pulling eax

VPM W = y1 y2′ − y2 y1′ Always standard form first

R
VPM u
R = − y2 X/W dx, v = Use t = ex substitution in most
y1 X/W dx integrals

Cauchy–Euler x = ez , x2 y ′′ = D(D−1)y Back-substitute z = ln x at end

Legendre’s ax + b = ez (ax + b)y ′ = aDy, (ax + b)2 y ′′ =

a2 D(D − 1)y

Table 1.2: Master Summary: Chapter 2

1.14 Exam Strategy

Time Budget (3-hour Exam)
ˆ Q.1 compulsory HOD part (3–5 marks): 12–15 minutes.
ˆ VPM question (8 marks): 25–30 minutes — highest marks per minute.
ˆ PI Type 5 combo (8 marks): 20–25 minutes.
ˆ Cauchy/Legendre (6 marks): 18–22 minutes.

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations

CHAPTER 1. HIGHER ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 31

Guaranteed 20+ Marks Strategy

1. Q.1b CF+PI: Write CF correctly + PI Types 2+3 ⇒ guaranteed 4–5 marks.
2. VPM (8 marks): Memorise the 6 results in the VPM table. Show y1 , y2 , W, u, v
explicitly before substituting.
3. PI Type 5 (8 marks): State “By Shift Theorem, replace D → D + a” explicitly.
4. Cauchy-Euler (6 marks): Write substitution clearly: “Put x = ez , z = ln x. . . ”
5. Final line: Always write C.S. = C.F. + P.I. with complete expression.

Critical Mistakes to Avoid

ˆ VPM before standard form: If coefficient of y ′′ is not 1, divide first.
ˆ Failure formula wrong: [1/(D2 + a2 )] sin(ax) = −x cos(ax)/(2a) (note: minus
sign for sine).
ˆ Shift theorem: Write f (D +a), not f (D −a). Pull out eax and replace D → D +a.
ˆ Cauchy substitution: x2 y ′′ = D(D − 1)y, not D2 y. The (D − 1) factor is
essential.
ˆ AE for repeated: (m−2)2 = 0 gives m = 2, 2; CF is (c1 +c2 x)e2x , not c1 e2x +c2 e2x .

Last-Hour Revision Order

1. VPM formula box (Section 1.4) — write W, u, v from memory.
2. Examples E1, E4, E5 (the three highest-frequency VPMs).
3. Example D7 (CF+PI complete).
4. PI summary table (Section 1.3).
5. Cauchy substitution formula (Section 1.5).

End of Chapter 2
Next: Chapter 3 — Beta & Gamma Functions + DUIS

Chapter 2: Higher Order Linear Differential Equations