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1. PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Definition

A physical quantity is any measurable property expressed with a numerical value and a unit.

Explanation

They are classified into:

1. Fundamental quantities – length (L), mass (M), time (T), current (I), temperature (Θ), etc.

2. Derived quantities – velocity, force, energy, pressure.

Dimensional analysis is used to:

• Check correctness of equations

• Derive relations

• Convert units

Formulae

Dimensional formula:

[𝑄] = 𝑀𝑎 𝐿𝑏 𝑇 𝑐

Example:

[𝐹] = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2

Proof (Principle of Homogeneity)

In equation:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

LHS dimension:

[𝐹] = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2

RHS dimension:

[𝑚][𝑎] = 𝑀(𝐿𝑇 −2 )

Since both sides equal ⇒ equation dimensionally correct.

2. VECTORS

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Definition

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.

Explanation

Examples: displacement, velocity, force.

Vectors follow addition laws (triangle/parallelogram law).

Formulae

Dot Product:

𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵cos⁡ 𝜃

Cross Product:

∣ 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ ∣= 𝐴𝐵sin⁡ 𝜃

Proof (Dot Product)

Let:

𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂
⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂
𝐵

Then:

𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧

From geometry:

= 𝐴𝐵cos⁡ 𝜃

3. UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

Definition

Motion with constant acceleration.

Explanation

Velocity changes uniformly with time.

Formulae

𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

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1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

Derivation

From:
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡

Integrate:

∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

Now:
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑥
𝑣2 𝑢2
= 𝑎𝑠 +
2 2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

4. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

First Law

A body remains at rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by external force.

Second Law

𝑑𝑝⃗
𝐹⃗ =
𝑑𝑡

If mass constant:

𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗

Proof

Momentum:

𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗

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Differentiate:

𝑑𝑝⃗ 𝑑𝑣⃗
=𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑚𝑎⃗

5. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Definition

Work: Product of force and displacement.

Energy: Capacity to do work.
Power: Rate of doing work.

Formulae

𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑠⃗
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝑃 = 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑣⃗

Derivation (Work–Energy Theorem)

𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑥

Substitute:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣
𝑑𝑥
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣
1 1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑢2
2 2
𝑊 = Δ𝐾

6. MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

Definition

Momentum is mass × velocity.

𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗

Conservation Law

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∑𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ∑𝑝𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

Proof

From Newton’s third law:

𝐹12 = −𝐹21
𝑑𝑝1 𝑑𝑝2
=−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Integrate:

𝑝1 + 𝑝2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

7. ROTATIONAL MOTION

Definition

Motion about a fixed axis.

Formulae

𝑑𝜃
𝜔=
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟𝜔2

Proof

Since arc length:

𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃

Differentiate:

𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔

8. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

Definition

Study of torque and rotational motion.

Formula

𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
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Derivation

For a particle:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Tangential:

𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚𝑟𝛼

Multiply by r:

𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝛼

Since:

𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼

9. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Definition

Pressure of gas is due to molecular collisions.

Formula
1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑚𝑣‾2
3
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇

Proof (Outline)

Using change in momentum:

Δ𝑝
𝐹=
Δ𝑡

After statistical averaging:

1 ‾2
𝑃= 𝜌𝑣
3

Using:

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1 ‾2 3
𝑚𝑣 = 𝑘𝑇
2 2

We get:

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇

10. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Definition

Motion where restoring force proportional to displacement.

𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥

Differential Equation

𝑑2𝑥
𝑚 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2

Solution

𝑥 = 𝐴cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑘
𝜔=√
𝑚

11. WAVE MOTION

Definition

A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy from one point to another without transfer of matter.

Explanation

Two types:

• Mechanical waves (require medium)

• Electromagnetic waves (do not require medium)

A travelling wave is represented by a wave function.

Formulae

Wave equation:

𝑦 = 𝐴sin⁡(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
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Where:
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝜆
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

Wave velocity:
𝜔
𝑣=
𝑘

Proof (Wave Speed Relation)

Given:
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝜆
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

Since:

𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆

Substitute:
𝜔
𝑣=
𝑘

12. INTERFERENCE OF WAVES

Definition

Interference is the superposition of two waves producing a resultant wave.

Explanation

Two types:

• Constructive interference

• Destructive interference

Conditions

Constructive:

Δ𝑥 = 𝑛𝜆

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Destructive:
1
Δ𝑥 = (𝑛 + )𝜆
2

Proof (Superposition Principle)

Let:

𝑦1 = 𝐴sin⁡ 𝜔𝑡
𝑦2 = 𝐴sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

Resultant:
𝜙 𝜙
𝑦 = 2𝐴cos⁡ sin⁡ (𝜔𝑡+ 2 )
2

Amplitude depends on phase difference ⇒ interference.

13. ELECTROSTATICS

Definition

Study of charges at rest.

Explanation

Like charges repel, unlike attract.

Coulomb’s Law
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

Gauss’s Law
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝐴⃗ =
𝜖0

Proof (Gauss Law for Point Charge)

Electric field of point charge:

1 𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

Flux through spherical surface:

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Φ = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 )

Substitute:
𝑞
Φ=
𝜖0

14. ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL

Definition

Electric field: Force per unit charge.

𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞

Electric potential: Work done per unit charge.

𝑊
𝑉=
𝑞

Relation

𝐸⃗⃗ = −∇𝑉

Proof

Work done:

𝑊 = −∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗

Divide by q:

𝑉 = −∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟⃗

15. ELECTRIC CURRENT

Definition

Rate of flow of charge.

𝑑𝑞
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡

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Drift Velocity

𝐼 = 𝑛𝑞𝐴𝑣𝑑

Ohm’s Law

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

Proof (Drift Velocity)

Force on electron:

𝐹 = 𝑒𝐸
𝑒𝐸
𝑎=
𝑚
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑎𝜏
𝑒𝐸𝜏
𝑣𝑑 =
𝑚

Substitute into current formula.

16. MAGNETIC FIELD

Definition

Region around a magnet or current where magnetic force is experienced.

Lorentz Force

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)

Biot–Savart Law
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙sin⁡ 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 2

Proof (Magnetic Force Circular Motion)

For perpendicular motion:

𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵

Set equal to centripetal force:

𝑚𝑣 2
𝑞𝑣𝐵 =
𝑟

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𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵

17. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Definition

Waves consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields.

Explanation

Predicted by Maxwell’s equations.

Wave Speed
1
𝑐=
√ 𝜇0 𝜖0

Proof (From Maxwell Equations)

From:

2
∂2 𝐸
∇ 𝐸 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 2
∂𝑡

Comparing with wave equation:

2
1 ∂2 𝐸
∇ 𝐸= 2 2
𝑣 ∂𝑡

So:
1
𝑣=
√ 𝜇0 𝜖0

18. CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Definition

A crystal is a periodic arrangement of atoms in space.

Explanation

Crystal = Lattice + Basis

Packing Fraction (FCC)

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𝜋
𝜂=
3√2

19. FREE ELECTRON THEORY (Drude Model)

Definition

Metals contain free electrons moving randomly.

Electrical Conductivity

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚

Proof
𝑒𝐸𝜏
𝑣𝑑 =
𝑚
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸

So:

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚

20. BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

Definition

Energy levels in solids form bands.

Explanation

• Conductor: Overlapping bands

• Insulator: Large gap

• Semiconductor: Small gap

21. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Intrinsic

𝑛 = 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖

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Law of Mass Action

𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2

22. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Definition

A p-n junction device allowing current in one direction.

Diode Equation

𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉/𝑘𝑇 − 1)

23. LOGIC CIRCUITS

AND:

𝑌 = 𝐴𝐵

OR:

𝑌 = 𝐴+𝐵

NOT:

𝑌 = 𝐴‾

24. IC FABRICATION

Steps:

1. Silicon crystal growth

2. Wafer preparation

3. Oxidation

4. Photolithography

5. Doping

6. Etching

7. Metallization

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MOST IMPORTANT LONG-ANSWER DERIVATIONS FOR EXAM

1. Work–Energy Theorem

2. Conservation of Momentum

3. SHM Equation

4. Kinetic Theory → PV = NkT

5. Maxwell Wave Equation

6. Drift Velocity & Conductivity

7. Gauss’s Law

8. Torque = Iα

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