ELECTROMECHANICAL ACTUATORS

Motors In Detail
Definition · Construction · Working Principle · Types · Advantages · Applications

DC Motor AC Motor Stepper Motor Servo Motor

Direct Current Alternating Current Open-Loop Control Closed-Loop Control
DC Motor — Definition & Construction
What it is · Key Components · Physical Structure

Definition
A DC motor converts direct current (DC) electrical energy into
mechanical rotational energy using the interaction between a
magnetic field and current-carrying conductors.

Construction — Key Parts

Stator (Field Winding)
Fixed outer frame. Provides the static magnetic field via permanent magnets
or electromagnets (field coils). N
Armature (Rotor)
Rotating core wound with copper coils. Carries current and experiences force
in the magnetic field.

Commutator
Segmented copper ring on shaft. Reverses current direction in armature coils
to maintain unidirectional torque.

Brushes
Carbon contacts that press against commutator, supplying current to the
rotating armature.

Shaft & Bearings

Transmit mechanical torque to the load. Bearings support the rotor and
reduce friction.
DC Motor — Working Principle & Types
Fleming's Left-Hand Rule · Force Equation · Motor Types

Working Principle

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. This is the Lorentz force: F = BIL (B=flux
density, I=current, L=conductor length). The commutator ensures the torque is always in the same rotational direction.

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule Types of DC Motor

Series DC Motor Shunt DC Motor
↑ THUMB
= Motion (F) Field winding in series with armature. Very high Field winding in parallel with armature. Almost
starting torque. Speed decreases as load constant speed. Self-regulating. Use: Lathes,
increases. Use: Electric traction, cranes. conveyors, fans.

→ INDEX
= Field (B)
Compound DC Motor PMDC Motor

Both series & shunt windings. Combines high Permanent magnet replaces field winding.
↓ MIDDLE
starting torque + constant speed. Use: Elevators, Compact, efficient, no field loss. Use: Automotive,
= Current (I)
presses, rolling mills. robotics, toys.

F=BIL
Advantages
✔ Easy speed control (voltage/PWM) ✔ High starting torque ✔ Reversible rotation ✔ Compact & cost-effective ✔ Wide speed range
 DC Shunt
The One Big Thing: Constant Flux, Constant
Speed. Motors Applications
Principle Speed vs. Armature
Current Perfect for
The field winding is constant-speed industrial
Constant speed line
connected in parallel (shunt) requirements:
- Lathes
across the armature. - Centrifugal
Because the supply voltage Torque vs. Armature Current pumps
is constant, the flux (&) Ta x la - Machine tools
T
remains a - Blowers
Thus, torque
practically is directly
constant.
proportional to
armature current (Tα Observe the nearly flat constant
speed line on the top graph, and the
la). linear relationship between torque /a)
and armature current (la) on the
bottom.
G
 DC Series Motors
The One Big Thing: Massive Starting
Torque.
Principle Speed vs. Armature Current Performance Applications
Curve
The field winding is in • Heavy traction
series with the work:
armature, carrying the
entire armature current. -Cranes
-Hoists
Flux is proportional to -Electric
current, making torque locomotives
proportional to square of la (Armature
0 I 3. 4. 6.
-Rapid transit
the current (I’« Inc. Currant)
.5 0 5 0

systems
Responds to heavy loads Notice the prominent, steep drop in
by decreasing speed and speed as load increases, and the
significanUy increasing parabolicrise in starirgtoque
torque. before magnetic saturation occurs.
 DC Compound
Motors
Principle The One Big Thing: The Hybrid Solution. Applications
Combines both series and Intermittent
shunt field windings. hiq<h-torque
Cumulative compound loads:
motors generate the hip<h
- Elevators
starting torque of a series
motor without the - Rolling mills
dangerous, runaway no- Long Shunt Short - Shears and punches
load speeds, anchored by Shunt - Heavy planers
the shunt field's definite
flux.
DC Motor — Applications & Characteristics
Where DC Motors Are Used · Speed-Torque Characteristics

Speed–Torque Characteristics Applications

Electric Vehicles Robotic Actuators

PMDC & brushless DC motors for Servo-grade DC motors in robot

traction drive, regenerative joint drives requiring precise speed
braking, and wheel motors in EVs control via PWM and encoder
Sp and e-bikes. feedback.
ee
d Shunt
↑ Industrial Machinery Automotive Systems

Series motors in cranes, hoists, and Windshield wipers, power

lifts (high torque at start). Shunt windows, seat adjusters, cooling
Compound motors in lathes, conveyors, mills. fans — all use small DC motors.

Series
Consumer Electronics Medical Devices
Torque →
PMDC motors in electric drills, Precision DC motors in infusion
Limitations mixers, hair dryers, printers, and pumps, dental drills, surgical tools,
CD/DVD drives. and prosthetic limb actuators.
✘ Brushes & commutator wear (maintenance) ✘ Sparking at brushes
(not suitable for explosive environments) ✘ Less efficient than BLDC
AC Motor — Definition & Construction
What it is · Stator · Rotor · Types of AC Motor

Definition Construction Diagram

An AC motor converts alternating current (AC) electrical energy into
mechanical rotational energy. A rotating magnetic field produced by
the stator induces current in the rotor, generating torque without
brushes or commutators.
Construction — Key Parts
Stator
Fixed outer part. Three-phase windings (120° apart) wound in slots. When
excited by 3-phase AC, creates a Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF).

Rotor (Squirrel Cage)

Cylindrical core with aluminium/copper bars short-circuited by end rings. RMF
induces current in bars → rotor torque.

Rotor (Wound)
Rotor with 3-phase windings connected via slip rings to external resistors for
starting torque control.

Air Gap
Small gap between stator & rotor. Critical for efficient flux transfer. Smaller
gap = higher efficiency.

Housing & Bearings

Cast iron/aluminium frame. Bearings support rotor. Cooling fins dissipate heat
from operation.
3-Phase AC Supply
AC Motor — Working Principle & Types
Rotating Magnetic Field · Slip · Synchronous vs Induction

Working Principle
3-phase AC creates a Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF) in the stator at synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P (f=frequency, P=poles). The RMF induces
current in squirrel cage rotor bars by electromagnetic induction. The induced current produces its own magnetic field, which interacts with
stator RMF to create torque (Lenz's Law).
Slip (s) = (Ns − Nr) / Ns × 100% where Ns = Synchronous speed, Nr =
Rotor speed
Slip enables relative motion between RMF & rotor → induces current
→ produces torque. At Ns=Nr, no induction → no torque.
Step-by-Step Working Flow

3-Phase Stator Rotor EMF Rotor Current Torque on Mechanical

▶ ▶ ▶ ▶ ▶
AC Input RMF Created Induced Flows Rotor Rotation

Types of AC Motor
Squirrel Cage Induction Slip Ring (Wound Rotor)

Most common. Aluminium bars short-circuited by end rings. Rugged, no 3-phase rotor winding + slip rings for external resistance. High starting
brushes, low maintenance. Use: Pumps, fans, compressors. torque. Use: Cranes, hoists, mills.

Synchronous Motor Single-Phase Induction

Rotor rotates at exactly synchronous speed (no slip). Excited by DC. Use: Used where 3-phase not available. Needs auxiliary starting. Types:
AC Motor — Advantages & Applications
Why AC Motors Dominate Industry · Key Use Cases

Advantages
No Brushes / Commutator High Reliability
Brushless design → zero maintenance from brush wear, no sparking Simple robust construction (squirrel cage). Long service life.
→ safe in hazardous environments. Tolerates overloading better than DC motors.

Direct AC Connection Variable Speed with VFD

Connects directly to the AC mains supply. No rectifier needed. Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) adjusts frequency → precise speed
Cost-effective for industrial plants. control without mechanical gears.

Applications
Industrial Pumps & Compressors HVAC Systems

Squirrel cage induction motors drive centrifugal pumps and air compressors AC motors drive fans, blowers, chillers and compressors. VFD allows variable
in water treatment, oil & gas, and manufacturing. airflow and energy savings in buildings.

Conveyor & Escalator Drives CNC & Milling Machines

Reliable, low-maintenance induction motors for long-running conveyor Servo AC motors with encoder provide precise spindle speed control for
systems in airports, mines, and factories. milling, turning and grinding operations.
Stepper Motor — Definition & Construction
What it is · Internal Components · Physical Structure

Definition Construction Diagram

A stepper motor is a brushless DC motor that divides a full rotation
into a fixed number of equal angular steps. Each electrical pulse
from a driver circuit rotates the shaft by exactly one step angle (e.g. STATOR POLES
(Phase Windings A & B) A
1.8°). It operates in open-loop without a feedback sensor.

Construction — Key Parts B B

Stator
Fixed outer part with multiple poles wound with coils (phases).
Electromagnets energised sequentially to create a stepping magnetic field.

Rotor
Toothed ferromagnetic core (variable reluctance) or permanent magnet ROTOR
A A SHAFT
rotor. Aligns with the stator's magnetic field at each step. (Toothed PM)
Phase Windings
Separate coil windings (A, B, A', B'). Energising them in sequence rotates the
rotor step-by-step.

Driver Circuit
Electronic circuit that receives pulse signals and switches phase currents.
B B
Controls step rate and direction.

Shaft & Encoder (optional)

A
Output shaft transmits rotation. Encoder optionally added for
semi-closed-loop in high-precision applications. 1 Pulse Input → 1 Step (1.8°) → 200 pulses = 1 full revolution
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts
electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements. The shaft
or spindle of a stepper motor rotates indiscrete step increments
when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper
sequence. The motors rotation has several direct relationships
to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied
pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation.
The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the
frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation is directly
related to the number of input pulses applied.
Stepper Motor — Working Principle & Types
Step Sequence · Full/Half Step · Motor Types · Advantages

Working Principle
Energising stator coil phases in a timed sequence creates a shifting magnetic field. The rotor teeth align with the energised stator poles at
each step. By controlling the pulse rate, direction, and sequence, precise position and speed are achieved — NO feedback needed.

Step Excitation Sequence (Full Step — 4 Steps)

Step A B A' B' Rotor Moves → 4 steps = 4 × 1.8° = 7.2° rotation

Step 1 ON off off off Aligns with A pole

Step 2 off ON off off Aligns with B pole

Step 3 off off ON off Aligns with A' pole

Types of Stepper Motor
Step 4 off off off ON Aligns with B' pole
Variable Reluctance (VR) Permanent Magnet (PM)
Non-magnetised rotor with teeth. Rotor aligns with stator poles to minimise Magnetised cylindrical rotor. More torque than VR. Detent torque holds
reluctance path. Low cost, low holding torque. position even without power. Use: Printers.

Hybrid Stepper Microstepping Driver

Combines PM rotor + VR tooth structure. High resolution (e.g. 1.8°/step = Electronic technique to interpolate between full steps. Achieves resolution
200 steps/rev). Most common industrial type. of 1/16, 1/32,
✔ Open-loop ✔ No feedback sensor ✔ Precise position (pulse count) ✔ No cumulative error1/64 of step
✔ Holds angle for
position ultra-smooth
at rest motion.
✘ May miss steps under overload
Stepper Motor — Applications & Comparison
Key Use Cases · Open-Loop vs Closed-Loop · Limitations

Applications
3D Printers CNC Plotters & Engravers Optical Equipment Medical Infusion Pumps

XYZ axes driven by hybrid stepper 2D pen plotters and laser engravers Camera autofocus, telescope slew Stepper drives syringe pump
motors. Each pulse = exact use steppers for precise X-Y drives, microscope stage pistons at precise micro-step rates
0.05–0.1mm movement. No positioning on flat work surfaces. positioning — all need fine to deliver exact drug volumes per
encoder required for short print repeatable angular steps. minute.
jobs.

Textile Machinery ATM / Vending Machines Disk Drive Head Positioning Valve & Damper Control

Pattern control in knitting, Currency dispensers, ticket Hard disk drive read/write head HVAC dampers, gas/liquid valves
weaving, and embroidery machines printers, card feeders use steppers positioning historically used VR use steppers for proportional
uses stepper motors for thread for controlled paper/card steppers before voice coil control without feedback sensor.
feed control. transport. actuators.

Comparison: Stepper vs Servo

Stepper: Open-loop · Low cost · No encoder · Precise position (pulse counting) · May lose steps under overload · Best: < 1000 RPM, moderate load
Servo: Closed-loop · Higher cost · Encoder needed · Self-correcting · No step loss · Better for high speed, dynamic loads, continuous duty
Servo Motor — Definition & Construction
What it is · Feedback System · Internal Components

Definition Closed-Loop System Diagram

A servo motor is a closed-loop motor system that uses a
position/speed sensor (encoder or resolver) to provide
Reference Error PID
continuous feedback to the controller. The controller adjusts the
motor drive signal to maintain the desired position, speed, or Position Σ ▶ Signal
Controller
▶

torque accurately.
Construction — Key Parts
Motor (DC or AC)
High performance brushless DC or AC synchronous motor. High Servo Servo Load
power-to-weight ratio, low inertia for fast response. ▶ ▶
Driver Motor (Mechanism)
Encoder / Resolver
Optical encoder on shaft counts pulses per revolution (e.g. 1000–10000 PPR).
Outputs position and speed to controller.

Servo Driver (Amplifier)

Power electronics that converts control signal (0–10V, pulse) to motor Encoder
current. Implements PID control loop internally. (Feedback)
Feedback
Gear Train (optional)
Reduction gearbox increases torque and reduces speed. Required for robotic
joints requiring high torque. Key feature: Error = Reference − Feedback. PID continuously minimises
this error → precise position control
Controller / PLC
Sends reference position/speed command to the driver. Receives encoder
feedback. Executes PID correction.
Servo Motor — Working Principle & Types
PID Control · BLDC vs AC Servo · Advantages

Working Principle
The controller compares the reference position/speed with encoder feedback. The error signal is processed by a PID controller which
computes a corrective output. The servo driver amplifies this to supply motor current proportional to required torque. The encoder
continuously updates position — this loop runs at 1–10 kHz update rate.

PID Control Roles

P — Proportional I — Integral D — Derivative

Output = Kp × Error Output = Ki × ∫Error dt Output = Kd × dError/dt

Generates correction proportional to current Accumulates error over time. Eliminates Acts on rate of error change. Damps
position error. Fast response but may steady-state error and ensures motor reaches overshoot and oscillation. Improves settling
overshoot the target. exactly the target. time and stability.

Types of Servo Motor

DC Brush Servo BLDC Servo (Brushless)

Traditional DC motor + encoder. Simple, low cost. Brush maintenance Permanent magnet rotor, electronically commutated. High efficiency, no
required. Use: Small robots, hobby servos. brush wear, high speed. Use: CNC, robotics, drones.
AC Synchronous Servo Linear Servo Motor
Servo Motor — Applications & Advantages
Where Servo Motors Excel · Key Performance Metrics

Advantages
Closed-Loop Accuracy High Speed Performance
Encoder feedback continuously corrects errors → position accuracy Operates efficiently at high RPM (up to 3000–6000 RPM) with full
of ±1 encoder count (sub-micron with fine encoders). torque. Steppers lose torque at high speed.

No Step Loss Energy Efficient

Unlike steppers, servo motors detect and correct disturbances. Will BLDC servo only draws current proportional to actual load.
alarm if it cannot maintain position (trip protection). Regenerative braking returns energy to bus.

Applications
Industrial Robot Arms CNC Machine Tool Drives

6-DOF robot arms use servo motors at every joint. Encoder feedback ensures Servo motors drive X,Y,Z and spindle axes on machining centres. Sub-micron
repeatability of ±0.05mm for welding, assembly. positioning for precision parts.

Semiconductor Wafer Handling Aerospace Actuators

BLDC servo + linear encoder stages pick and place silicon wafers with Flight control surface actuation (rudder, aileron, elevator) uses BLDC servo
nm-level accuracy in cleanrooms. for fast, precise, redundant control.
Motor Comparison Summary
DC · AC · Stepper · Servo — Head-to-Head

Parameter DC Motor AC Motor Stepper Motor Servo Motor

Control Type Open-loop (voltage) Open-loop (VFD) Open-loop (pulses) Closed-loop (encoder)

Feedback None None (VFD: partial) None Encoder/Resolver

Speed Range Wide (0–6000 RPM) Moderate (VFD) Low (<1000 RPM) Wide (0–6000 RPM)

Torque at Start Very High (Series) Moderate High High

Position Control Poor Poor Excellent Excellent

Maintenance Brushes wear Minimal None Minimal

Cost Low–Medium Low Low High

Best Use Case EVs, variable speed Pumps, HVAC 3D printers, CNC Robots, CNC, aerospace