G PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (AUTONOMOUS) KURNOOL:

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEEING

BASICS
OF
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Syllabus:

Unit-I : Basics of Civil Engineering: Role of Civil Engineers in Society- Various Disciplines of
Civil Engineering- Structural Engineering- Geo-technical Engineering- Transportation
Engineering- Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering - Environmental Engineering-Scope
of each discipline - Building Construction and Planning- Construction Materials-Cement -
Aggregate -Bricks- Cement concrete- Steel. Introduction to Prefabricated construction
Techniques

Unit-Ii: Surveying: Objectives of Surveying- Horizontal Measurements- Angular

Measurements- Introduction to Bearings Levelling instruments used for levelling -Simple
problems on levelling and bearings-Contour mapping.

Unit-III: Transportation Engineering Importance of Transportation in Nation's economic

development- Types of Highway Pavements- Flexible Pavements and Rigid Pavements - Simple
Differences. Basics of Harbour, Tunnel, Airport, and Railway Engineering

Water Resources and Environmental Engineering: Introduction, Sources of water- Quality of

water- Specifications- Introduction to Hydrology–Rainwater Harvesting-Water Storage and
Conveyance Structures (Simple introduction to Dams and Reservoirs)
 Unit-I

Introduction
 Civil engineering is a branch of engineering that deals with the design, construction, and
maintenance of infrastructure and projects that enhance and protect the quality of life.
 It encompasses a wide range of activities and plays a crucial role in shaping the physical
environment around us (or)
 Civil engineering is one of the oldest and most diverse branches of engineering. It deals
with the design, construction, and maintenance of infrastructure projects such as
buildings, bridges, roads, dams, and airports.
 Civil engineers play a vital role in improving the quality of life for people around the
world.
 If any are interested in a career in civil engineering, you should have a strong foundation
in mathematics and physics. You should also be able to think critically and solve
problems.
 Civil engineering programs typically last four years and lead to a Bachelor of Science
degree. After graduation, you can pursue a career in civil engineering with a
government agency, private consulting firm, or construction company.

Definition: Civil engineering is the profession and discipline of designing, constructing,

and maintaining infrastructure and systems that support human civilization. It includes
buildings, bridges, roads, dams, airports, water supply and sewage systems, and more.

Responsibilities of Civil Engineers:

 Planning and designing infrastructure projects.

 Calculating loads, stresses, and other structural considerations
 Obtaining necessary permits and approvals
 Overseeing construction and ensuring compliance with design specifications
 Managing budgets and project timelines
  Conducting inspections and quality control
 Ensuring safety standards are met

Tools and Technologies:

Civil engineers use various tools and technologies, including computer-aided design (CAD)
software, geographic information systems (GIS), surveying equipment, and simulation software
for structural analysis. They also work closely with other professionals, such as architects,
landscape architects, and contractors.

History of civil engineering:

 4000-2000 BC: The ancient Egyptians build the pyramids of Giza, one of the Seven
Wonders of the Ancient World.
 2000-1500 BC: The Indus Valley civilization builds a sophisticated irrigation system.
 1000-500 BC: The Mesopotamians build the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, another of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
 221-206 BC: The Great Wall of China is built.
 1st century AD: The Romans build the Colosseum and the Pantheon
 12th-15th centuries: Gothic cathedrals are built in Europe.
 16th century: The Renaissance sees a renewed interest in civil engineering
 18th century: The Industrial Revolution leads to a rapid increase in the demand for civil
engineers.
 19th century: Civil engineers design and build the Panama Canal, the Suez Canal, and
the Eiffel Tower.
 20th century: Civil engineers design and build the Hoover Dam, the Golden Gate Bridge,
and the Interstate Highway System in the United States.
 21st century: Civil engineers are working to develop new technologies to address
challenges such as climate change and urbanization.
Civil Engineer:

A civil engineer is a professional who oversees construction projects. They are the ones
responsible for the complete construction, functionality, and safety of the project. They have to
use their education and principles of civil engineering to bring to life creations designed by
architects. They have to work with a team of professionals and manage a large number of
construction workers.

General Responsibilities of a Civil Engineer:

Assess Construction Site – Civil engineers have to assess and do a complete feasibility
study of the construction site. They have to consider many factors, including the impact on
nature and the surrounding environment, and plan accordingly.

Planning the construction – Civil engineers have to plan out the whole construction
process beforehand. This has to be a systematic process to facilitate the smooth flow of work.
Every step has to be meticulously planned.

Budgets – If the budget already has been set for the work, it is the job of the civil engineer to
make sure all the construction happens within the budget. If the budget has not been set, the
civil engineer, along with the planner, will take into account the raw materials required,
machinery & equipment costs, labour required for the project, and set the budget and
deadlines accordingly.

Oversee the Construction – The biggest responsibility of a civil engineer is to oversee the
construction. They have to be there to see the construction being done in phases set by them.
They also check the quality during construction .

Final Inspection – Before the project can be termed complete, civil engineers have to do a
thorough final inspection of the construction. Once the structure is deemed safe, they prepare
a report and label the construction as complete

Key Skills Required for Civil Engineering:

 Planning and organizing skills as they are the initial steps in a civil engineer’s work.
 Strong technical, math, and science skills as they are an integral part of the construction.
 Construction work is rife with problems as it involves people, products, and machinery.
So, when problems arise you have to be good at sorting them.
 Your team managing and leadership skills will help you manage the various
professionals you are working with, and the workers working for you.
 You also need to have good budgeting skills.
 Meeting deadlines is important as missing any can be a costly affair.
  You also need to know the government and local municipal laws of the area you will be
working in.

Role of Civil Engineer in society

 Main role of Civil engineers is in surveying, planning, designing, estimation and

execution of structures.
 To solve different engineering problems with the help of field experience, laboratory
techniques, numerical methods, mathematical models, using computer and information
technology.
 To implement management techniques for better management of man, material,
machine and money.
 To carry out soil investigation for design of foundations of structures.
 To invite tenders and to select contractor for the work
 To carry out surveying and levelling and fixing the alignments (center-line) of roads,
railways, canals, tunnels, pipes etc.
 To carry out planning of buildings as per its functional needs and also has role in town
and regional planning
 To carry out the design of structures as per the principles of structural analysis and
design.
 Civil engineer should ensure that design is safe, durable and economic.
 To supervise the work during execution and to ensure progress of work.
 To carry out valuation of land or building for the purpose of finding its sale or purchase
price or taxation
 Civil engineers has to maintain public health by providing pure water for drinking,
treating waste water before disposing in to water course and to collect the solid waste
of town and disposing it.
 Civil engineer has to provide basic infrastructure of the structures for projects of many
other engineering disciplines, like to design machine foundations and to provide steel
frame structure and sheds for industries for the mechanical engineering project.
  To construct tunnels for hydropower station, to construction cooling tower for thermal
power stations and to erect transmission towers for electrical lines for electrical
engineering

Scope of Civil Engineering

The main scope of Civil engineering or the task of Civil engineering is planning, designing,
estimating, and supervising construction, managing construction, execution and maintenance
of structures.

The scope of Civil engineering is two fold

 According to the field of work, area of services and type of structures

 Functions of Civil engineering

Scope according to the field of work, area of services and type of structures

 Building Construction
 Construction of Heavy Structures
 Geotechnical Engineering
 Transportation Engineering
 Water Resources Engineering
 Environmental Engineering
 Town Planning

Building Construction:

 Constructing Residential buildings like apartments, tenements, flats, raw houses,

bungalows, villas, quarters etc
 Constructing Public buildings like schools, colleges, government offices, post offices,
hospitals, shopping complexes, hostels etc
 Constructing Industrial buildings like workshops, ware houses, stores and industrial
sheds
 Construction of Heavy Structure:
Constructing bridges, dams, ports, airports, underwater construction, tunnels,
cofferdams, caissons, pile foundations etc with Advanced Construction Techniques. It
also includes study of several advanced techniques, modern equipment and materials

Geotechnical Engineering:

 Constructing several types of foundations like simple footing, well foundation, pile
foundation, cofferdams and foundations of machines subjected to vibrations is the main
scope of geotechnical engineering.
 It further includes constructing tunnels, earthen dams, earth work for highways and
railways. It also includes soil investigation and soil testing.

Transportation Engineering:

 Constructing structures related to the transportation engineering like roads, railways,

bridges, tunnels, ports, harbors, runways and airports.
 It also includes traffic engineering and study of highway materials

Water Resource Engineering:

 Constructing structures relating to water resources engineering like dams, barrages,

canals, canal structures and hydropower station.
  It also includes irrigation methods, water shed management, rain water harvesting, soil
conservation, open channel hydraulics, flow measurement, hydrology, flood control and
water power engineering

Town Planning:

 Planning of the town by zoning of the land, planning road network, planning other
services like water supply and drainage.
 Preparing master plan of town planning schemes and regulating construction by
building byelaws

Scope according to the Functions of Civil engineering

 Surveying
 Planning
 Structural analysis and design
 Professional Practice
 (a)Estimating (b) Costing and accounts (c) Valuation (d) Contracts
 Construction management
 (a)Planning and scheduling (b) Construction execution and supervision
 Quality control and research
 Maintenance of structure
Surveying
 To carry out surveying for setting out of works and for preparing map of land
 Leveling is carried out to measure levels and to prepare contour map.
 Measurements of distances and angles are taken with the help of surveying
instruments.
 Maps are useful for planning of the construction project.
Planning
 To carry out planning of the different units according to their functional needs. Say for
example buildings are constructed to create living space and roads are constructed for
transportation of vehicles over them.
  Technical feasibility study, economic viability study, environmental impact analysis,
surveying and soil investigations are the different planning activities.
 On the bases of the data collected and map prepared by surveying, planning of the
project is made
Structural Analysis and design
 To carry out structural design of the structure by selecting the type of material like
concrete or steel and fixing the size and shape of various structural components like
slab, beam column etc.
 Structural analysis is required prior to the designing of the structure
Quality control and research
 To have a quality check by testing of material and checking workmanship
 During the actual construction, quality of the materials can be checked by testing the
various properties of the materials.
 Materials should comply the needs of specifications Workmanship like dimensions, lines
and levels, finishing etc. is also required to be checked.
 To carry out research for improvement in the quality, strength, durability and look of
the structure through innovative practices.
Professional Practice:
 Estimating: To prepare estimate of work. Estimates are prepared from data of drawings,
specifications, rates etc. The procedure for preparing estimate is known as estimating.
 Costing and accounts: To carry out costing to know the actual expenditure in the
payment of bills to the contractor, and many other expenditure, during construction of
the work.
 Valuation: To carry out valuation of the property like land or land with building.
Valuation is carried out for the purpose of knowing the fair and just price or market
value of the property for the purpose of sales, purchases, insurance, taking loans and
other purposes.
 Contracts: To carry out the construction of work through contractor according to the
conditions of the contract. On the bases of the contractor’s qualification, past
performance and rates filled in the tender papers, work is allocated to the contractor
Construction Management:
Planning and Scheduling:
 To carry out project planning and prepare different schedules
 Scheduling is the procedure of fixing the order of execution of different activities during
construction
 For preparing schedules methods like bar chart and critical path methods are generally
used. Economic analysis is also carried out to know the economic viability and to select
one alterative among several other options.
Construction execution and Supervision:
 To carry out the actual execution of the construction of the structure and to supervise
the progress of the work as per plan, design and specification and condition of the
contract.
 During the actual construction engineer has to provide technical guidance to the
contractor and monitor the progress.
 Management practices during construction also include handling of the equipment and
storing of material. It also includes observing labor laws and safety precaution
Maintenance of Structure:
 To carry out the maintenance of the structure after the construction is over Structures
needs maintenance and proper care.
 Due to continuous utilization of structure, wear and tear occurs hence maintenance of
the structure is required.
 Repair works are required to protect the structures to make them free from the effects
of damage or deterioration.
 Some maintenance works are carried out annually like white washing and painting.
Different types of the repair works are current repairs, special repairs and major
according to the type of the repair.
 Various Disciplines of Civil Engineering

 Structural Engineering
 Geo-technical Engineering
 Transportation Engineering
 Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering
 Environmental Engineering
 Building Construction and Planning

Structural Engineering:
 Structural engineering is a branch of civil engineering that is concerned with the
structural design of man-made structures. Often described as designing the ‘bones and
muscles’ of structures, these engineers need to understand the rigidity, stability and
strength of both buildings and non-building structures
 Structural engineering plays a crucial role in the construction and maintenance of
infrastructure worldwide. Engineers in this field work to ensure that buildings and other
structures are safe, reliable, and capable of serving their intended purposes while
considering economic, environmental, and aesthetic factors.
 This includes factors such as loading and susceptibility to earthquakes structural
engineers can also be involved in the design of other assets where structural integrity
impacts function and safety, such as machinery, medical equipment and vehicles.
 These engineers need to understand the structural performance of different materials
and geometries in order to apply structural engineering design concepts to build
structural systems A structural engineer works closely with clients, architects, building
contractors and other engineers
 Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of applied mechanics,
materials science and applied mathematics to understand and predict how structures
 Key aspects of structural engineering include:
 Structural Analysis: Engineers use mathematical and computational methods to assess
how different loads, such as gravity, wind, seismic activity, and temperature
fluctuations, affect a structure. This analysis helps determine the internal forces and
stresses within the structure.
 Structural Design: Based on the analysis, structural engineers design the components of
a structure, such as beams, columns, foundations, and other elements, to safely
distribute loads and resist external forces. They must also consider factors like materials,
construction methods, and environmental conditions.
 Materials Selection: Structural engineers choose appropriate building materials, such as
concrete, steel, wood, or composite materials, based on the specific requirements of a
project. The choice of materials depends on factors like strength, durability, cost, and
the intended use of the structure.
 Codes and Standards: Structural engineers must adhere to building codes and industry
standards to ensure the safety and integrity of their designs. These codes are often set
by national or regional authorities and are periodically updated to incorporate the latest
engineering knowledge.
 Construction Oversight: Structural engineers are often involved in overseeing
construction to ensure that the design is implemented correctly and that the structure is
built to meet the intended specifications and safety requirements
 Environmental Considerations: Structural engineers may also consider environmental
factors, such as sustainability and energy efficiency, when designing structures. They
might incorporate features like green building materials or design techniques to reduce
a building's environmental impact
 Retrofitting and Rehabilitation: Structural engineers work on existing structures,
assessing their condition and making recommendations for repairs, renovations, or
retrofitting to improve their safety and functionality.
 Risk Assessment: Structural engineers often assess the risks associated with natural
disasters, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and floods, and design structures to
withstand these events, minimizing the potential for damage or collapse.
  Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and Analysis: Modern structural engineers use advanced
software tools for modeling, simulation, and analysis, which aid in the design and
assessment of structures.
Skills required to become a Structural Engineer:
It’s necessary for every structural engineer to possess the following skills:
 Analytical skills
 Detailed orientation
 Creativity
 Strong interpersonal skills
 Communication skills
 Knowledge of CAD software application like ETABS, SAFE, STAAD Pro, PROKON,
REVIT,Stera3D etc
 Excellent computer skills
 Knowledge of construction management
 Familiarity with codes and regulations specific with the industry
 Up-to-date technical skills
Basic Components of a Building Structure:
 Roof
 Parapet
 Lintels
 Beams
 Columns
 Damp proof course (DPC)
 Walls
 Floor
 Stairs
 Plinth Beam
 Foundation
 Plinth
In civil engineering, structures are broadly classified into eight different types:
1. Load-bearing structures (A load-bearing structure is a type of structure that contains the
parts of a building that safely carries and distributes the load to the ground. As a result of
the roof and floor being directly supported in a load-bearing structure, the structure's
weight is transferred to the walls)
2. Truss structures (Structures having a large span and little depth are known as trusses. A
truss is made up of thin, triangle-shaped components that are placed in a certain sequence.
A planar truss, often used for bridges, has all of its parts in the same plane)
3. Frame structures (A beam and a column are joined by a pin or other fixed connection to
form a frame. The structure is indeterminate for stiff joint connections, and frames may be
stretched into two or three dimension. It have two types of structures are Rigid Frame
Structure, Braced Frame Structure)
4. Cable and arch structures (when trusses are not feasible, long spans are supported by
cables, which significantly increase the cost and scale of the structure. These structures are
utilized for spans greater than 46 meters (150ft) and can bear weights in tension. These are
used in bridge structures, and the use of cables is limited by their weight, sag, and
anchorage method.)
5. Pre-engineered structures (Pre-engineered buildings (PEBs) are designed by a supplier or
manufacturer using a single design that can be constructed using various materials and
fabrication techniques to meet various structural and aesthetic design requirements)
6. Mass structures (A mass structure is made by assembling similar materials into a certain
form or pattern. Despite being constructed using low-quality materials, they are often quite
thick. They are formed by piling materials in a certain pattern or shape)
7. Tensile structures (A structure with only tension and no compression or bending is
known as a tensile structure. The most common type of thin-shell structure is tensile)
8. Composite structures (A load-bearing structure and a frame structure combine to form a
composite structure. While internal column and beam structures may support floors and
ceilings, exterior walls can be load-bearing structures)
Types of loads
 Dead Loads (The first vertical load that is considered is dead load. Dead loads are
permanent or stationary loads which are transferred to structure throughout the life
span. Dead load is primarily due to self weight of structural members, permanent
partition walls, fixed permanent equipments and weight of different materials.)
 Imposed Loads (The second vertical load that is considered in design of a structure is
imposed loads or live loads. Live loads are either movable or moving loads without any
acceleration or impact. These loads are assumed to be produced by the intended use or
occupancy of the building including weights of movable partitions or furniture etc.. Live
loads keeps on changing from time to time)
 Wind Loads (Wind load is primarily horizontal load caused by the movement of air
relative to earth. Wind load is required to be considered in structural design especially
when the heath of the building exceeds two times the dimensions transverse to the
exposed wind surface)
 Snow Loads (Snow loads constitute to the vertical loads in the building. But these types
of loads are considered only in the snow fall places. The IS 875 (part 4) – 1987 deals with
snow loads on roofs of the building)
 Earthquake Loads (Earthquake forces constitute to both vertical and horizontal forces
on the building. The total vibration caused by earthquake may be resolved into three
mutually perpendicular directions, usually taken as vertical and two horizontal
directions)
 Other Loads (As per the clause 19.6 of IS 456 – 2000, in addition to above load
discussed, account shall be taken of the following forces and effects if they are liable to
affect materially the safety and serviceability of the structure)
 Geo-technical Engineering
 Geotechnical engineering is an area of civil engineering that focuses on the engineering
behaviour of earth materials
 Geotechnical engineers use their knowledge to determine the chemical, mechanical and
physical properties of soil and rock for the design of earthworks, foundations and
retaining structures
 A site investigation of ground conditions is used to determine the depth of foundations,
while earthworks may include embankments, channels, bunds and tunnels, and
retaining structures include retaining walls and earth-filled dams
 The geotechnical engineer is involved in field and laboratory investigations to determine
the engineering properties of site soils and other geomaterials
 A geotechnical engineer designs plans and undertakes appraisals for onshore and
offshore projects.
The work of a geotechnical engineer can include:
 Site appraisals and investigations
 Geological and hydro-geological characterization
 Ground improvement and soil stabilisation
 Excavations, earthwork creation and slope engineering
 Foundation and retaining wall engineering
 Temporary works and support systems
 Ground monitoring and instrumentation
 Drilling feasibility studies
 Subsidence and underpinning engineering
 Road and pavement subgrade testing
 Risk assessment and monitoring
Types of Geotechnical Engineering:
Geotechnical engineering can be split into three types:
Soil Mechanics
 Applying engineering mechanics to soils to assess their properties as well as
investigating dynamics, fluid mechanics, and kinematics and material mechanics
 Rock Mechanics
 Engineering the properties and mechanics of rocks – including the application of
dynamics, fluid mechanics, and kinematics and material mechanics
Foundation Engineering
 This brings together geology, soil and rock mechanics, and structural engineering for the
design and construction of foundations for a range of civil engineering projects. This
field involves predicting the performance of foundation soil and rock to a load imposed
by a structure, while considering performance, economy and safety.

Geotechnical or Soil Engineering has vast application in the construction of various civil
engineering works. Some of the important applications are:

 Foundations
 Retaining Structures
 Stability of Slopes
 Underground Structures
 Pavement design
 Earthen dam

1) Foundations:

Every civil engineering structure, whether it is building, a bridge or a dam is founded on or

below the surface of the earth. Foundations are required to transmit the load of the structure
of soil safely and efficiently.
 Fig. Shallow Foundation

When, d is less than or equal to b, it is called shallow foundation.

Fig. Pile Foundation

When, d > b, it is called deep foundation, where, b=width of footing, d depth of footing

2) Retaining Structures:

When sufficient space is not available for a mass of soil to spread and form a safe slope, a
structure is required to retain the soil.

Fig. Retaining Wall

An earth retaining structure is also required to keep the soil at different levels on its either
side.

Fig. Sheet Pile

The retaining structure may be a rigid retaining wall or a sheet like bulkhead which is relatively
flexible.

3) Stability of Slopes:

If soil surface is not horizontal, there is a component of weight of the soil which tends to move
it downwards and that causes instability of slopes.

The slope may be natural or man-made.

Fig. Slope in Filling

Fig. Slope in Cutting

Figure shows slopes in filling and cutting. Soil Engineering provides the methods for checking
the stability of slopes.

4) Underground Structures:

Fig. Underground Structures

The design and construction of underground structures, such as tunnels, shafts, conduits
require evaluation of forces exerted by the soil on these structures.

5) Pavement design:

A pavement is a hard crust placed on soil sub grade for the purpose of providing a smooth and
strong surface on which vehicles can move.

Fig. Pavement Details

The pavement consists of surfacing such as a bitumen layer, base and sub base. The behavior of
sub grade under various conditions of loading and environmental changes is studied in Soil
engineering.

6) Earthen dam:

Earth dams are huge structures in which soil is used as a construction material.
 Fig. Earth Dam

The earth dams are built for creating water reservoirs. Design of earthen dam requires
knowledge of soil engineering.

Transportation Engineering
 Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that involves the planning,
design, operation, and maintenance of transportation systems to help build smart, safe,
and livable communities
 Transportation engineering is the application of modern technology and scientific
principles to the design, development and maintenance of transportation systems.
 The field of transportation engineering uses the latest developments in transportation,
such as autonomous vehicles and transportation management systems, and uses them
to create the most efficient and effective systems possible for various locales.
 Transportation engineering applies to major terminals and the networks that connect
them
 Transportation engineering makes advantage of the most recent advancements in
transportation to design the most effective and economical options for different
locations
 There are also various offers with multiple employment openings, with the most
prominent posts in government firms.
 It has a broad scope that includes automobile design, vehicle prototypes, aircraft
systems, and computer-integrated vehicles.
Career Opportunities in Transportation Engineering

1. Airport Engineer

Transportation engineering jobs are also available in the aviation sector. Airport engineers are
in charge of the planning and construction of airports, hangars, and airbases. Airport engineers
place a high value on exact and comprehensive study of air traffic patterns, wind patterns, and
air transport safety

2. Highway Engineer

A highway engineer is responsible for the planning, design, and operation of highways, roads,
and other pedestrian and bicycle lanes. This enhances the transportation system by utilising
engineering principles. This also promotes driver security as well as ease.

3. Transportation planner

A transportation planner predicts and overcomes the difficulties associated with the
construction of transportation highways and infrastructure. Planners must strike a balance
between the public's needs and concerns and the program's requirements.

4. Railroad Engineers

Railroad engineers, can operate as railway designers or as operators and emergency

responders. Rather than planning new railways, railroad engineers typically focus on upgrading
the country's current railroads to make them safer and more efficient. Whenever railroad
engineers work on the planning, design, and construction of new railways, it is usually for
transportation networks like light rails and tramways.

5. Construction Engineer

Transportation construction engineers work on-site to coordinate the development of those

undertakings. They assure that a task gets done in time, in accordance with the plan, and is
secure for the personnel involved.

6. Transportation Designer

Transportation designers create transportation projects by implementing automation,

engineering knowledge, and experience. Designers frequently have multiple computer models
illustrating the possible impacts of every design before deciding on a precise concept. The
optimal design serves the aim of the project, has the lowest environmental impact,

Transportation engineers research, assess, design and develop new solutions for projects that
include:

 Highways and roads

 Traffic control systems such as traffic signals
 Public transit systems
 Railroads and depots
 Seaports
  Waterways
 Airports
 Bridges
 Pavements
Transportation engineering addresses the common issues related to transportation systems
and seeks ways to resolve these for safer, faster and more efficient transportation options.
Some of the concerns that a transportation engineer might address include:
 Manage proper maintenance of the roadways
 Handle traffic flow to minimize congestion
 Prevent transportation accidents
 Select the appropriate pavement and other materials for roads, highways and other
types of construction
 Facilitate efficient trade routes
 Determine the fastest way to transport goods
 Ensure compliance with state and federal construction policies
 Provide safe options for pedestrian traffic
 Operations for transportation companies, public transportation and urban
transportation
 Assess the environmental effects of transportation projects
 Develop response plans to mitigate the risks of natural disasters

Transportation engineering combines the science of construction with the creativity required to
develop innovative new systems, installations and solutions. This is a broad career field with
positions available in both the public and private sectors. Transportation engineers may work
for the federal or state government, vehicle manufacturing companies, airline companies, and
railroad companies and trucking businesses. These engineers may also work as consultants for a
variety of agencies, providing keen professional insights that can guide the development of new
projects.

A transportation engineer's common job responsibilities may include:

 Supervise work on a construction site

 Determine the traffic impact caused by new development plans

 Set forth goals and criteria for new projects

 Prepare work plans, such as blueprints or contracts

 Create transportation models or designs

 Research and evaluating traffic volume, accidents, practices and efficiency

 Prepare reports on traffic and transportation matters

 Develop models of transportation scenarios

 Prepare budgets and schedules for transportation projects

 Identify solutions for transportation problems

 Inspect transportation systems for legal compliance

 Provide recommendations for traffic policies

 Design new means of transportation

Hydraulic and Water Resources

 Hydraulic engineers specialize in the flow and transport of water. They design and
analyze hydraulic structures such as dams, canals, and pipelines.
 They ensure that water flows efficiently through channels and pipes, manage flood
control systems, and optimize water distribution networks.
 As a Hydraulic Engineer, one will focus on the building of dams, hydro-electric power
development, water distribution networks, water collection networks, sewage
collection, sediment transport and many other projects that involve transportation
and Geotechnical Engineering.
 A water resources engineer specializes in managing and developing water-related
systems and resources.
 They apply engineering principles and techniques to address water-related
challenges such as water supply, water quality, flood control, and water resource
sustainability.
 Water resources engineers work on a wide range of projects, including the design
and construction of water supply systems, wastewater treatment plants, irrigation
systems, and storm water management infrastructure.
 They analyze water resources data, conduct hydraulic and hydrological modeling,
and develop strategies to optimize the use and conservation of water resources.
 Additionally, they may assess the environmental impact of water-related projects
and ensure compliance with regulatory requirements.
 Water resources engineers collaborate with various stakeholders, including
government agencies, environmental organizations, and communities, to develop
 sustainable water management plans and implement effective solutions for the
efficient utilization and protection of water resources
 Water resources engineers are vital for effective and sustainable water
management, addressing the growing challenges related to water supply, quality,
and distribution.
 They play a crucial role in designing and implementing infrastructure and systems
that ensure access to clean drinking water, manage floods and droughts, and protect
water resources.

The duties and responsibilities of a water resources engineer can vary depending on the
specific job role and project requirements. Some common tasks associated with the role:

 Water Resources Planning and Management: Water resources engineers are

responsible for assessing water availability, demand, and usage patterns. They conduct
studies to analyze water resources systems, evaluate the impact of population growth
and climate change, and develop long-term plans for sustainable water management.
This may involve developing water supply strategies, implementing water conservation
measures, and evaluating the feasibility of water infrastructure projects.

 Hydraulic and Hydrological Modeling: Water resources engineers use sophisticated

computer models to simulate and analyze the flow of water in rivers, streams, and other
water bodies. They assess the impact of various factors, such as rainfall, runoff, and
water diversions, on water quantity and quality. By conducting hydraulic and
hydrological modeling, they can predict flood risks, evaluate water distribution systems,
and design effective storm water management solutions.

 Water Supply and Treatment Systems: Water resources engineers design and oversee
the construction of water supply and treatment systems. They develop plans for water
extraction, storage, and distribution, ensuring that communities have access to safe and
reliable water resources. They also design and implement wastewater treatment
facilities to ensure proper disposal or recycling of wastewater, protecting the
environment and public health.

 Environmental Impact Assessment: Water resources engineers assess the

environmental impact of water-related projects. They consider factors such as habitat
preservation, water quality protection, and ecological sustainability. They conduct
environmental impact assessments, identify potential risks, and develop mitigation
strategies to minimize negative effects on ecosystems and natural resources.

 Collaboration and Stakeholder Engagement: Water resources engineers collaborate

with a range of stakeholders, including government agencies, community groups, and
environmental organizations. They participate in public meetings, consult with
 stakeholders, and address concerns related to water resource management. Effective
communication and collaboration skills are essential to engage stakeholders, gain
support for projects, and ensure that the needs and interests of all parties are
considered.

Water resources engineering is a broad field with various specialized areas. Based on their
specific areas of expertise water resources engineers may work as:

 Water Supply Engineer: These engineers focus on designing and managing water supply
systems, including water sources, treatment plants, distribution networks, and storage
facilities. They work to ensure the availability of clean and safe drinking water for
communities.

 Hydrologist: Hydrologists study the movement, distribution, and quality of water in the
environment. They assess precipitation, evaporation, and runoff patterns, and use
modeling techniques to analyze water availability and predict the behavior of water
systems. They play a crucial role in water resource planning, flood management, and
environmental impact assessments.

 Hydraulic Engineer: Hydraulic engineers specialize in the flow and transport of water.
They design and analyze hydraulic structures such as dams, levees, canals, and pipelines.
They ensure that water flows efficiently through channels and pipes, manage flood
control systems, and optimize water distribution networks.

 Storm water Engineer: Storm water engineers focus on managing and controlling storm
water runoff to prevent flooding and minimize water pollution. They design and
implement storm water management systems, including detention ponds, rain gardens,
green infrastructure, and drainage networks, to effectively manage and treat storm
water.

 Wastewater Engineer: Wastewater engineers specialize in the treatment and

management of wastewater. They design and oversee the construction of wastewater
treatment plants, collection systems, and disposal methods. They ensure the safe and
environmentally responsible treatment of wastewater before it is released back into the
environment.

Water Resources Planner: Water resources planners work on the strategic planning and
management of water resources. They assess water demands, develop water allocation
plans, and coordinate with stakeholders to balance water needs among various sectors,
such as agriculture, industry, and the environment. They analyze water availability, plan
 for drought or water scarcity situations, and develop long-term water resource
management strategies

Environmental Engineering
 Environmental Engineering is the application of science and engineering principles that
provide a better environment, to give healthy water, air and land for human habitation
and other living things, and to rehabilitate polluted areas.
 In addition, it focuses on finding appropriate solutions in the field of public health, such
as arthropod-related diseases, and in enforcing laws that promote adequate sanitation
in urban, rural, and recreational areas.
 The main task of environmental engineers is to protect public health by protecting (from
further degradation), preserving (the present condition of), and enhancing the
environment.

The Importance of Environmental Engineering to Society

The world today faces many environmental problems, ranging from local problems such as
groundwater depletion to global problems such as climate change. These problems can only
be solved when everyone cares about the environment. Therefore, everyone needs to be
informed about the various causes, consequences and remedies of environmental
problems. It is therefore necessary to preface their consideration with the statements of
the broader characteristic divisions such as-

 It guides us on how our developmental and daily activities affect the environment and
how we are affected by changes in environmental conditions.
 It guides us to create a pollution free environment (which includes clean air, water, land
and food) by adopting various methods of prevention and control of pollution.
 It guides our natural resources such as water, forests, minerals and fossil fuels to be
utilized in an efficient way, with maximum utility and minimum waste by adopting
conservation and recycling strategies.
 Adopts the above three characteristics, namely, knowing one’s environmental impact,
prevention and control of pollution, and efficiently utilizing resources efficiently in daily
activities to lead the general public in an environmentally friendly way.
 It allows industries to operate in an environmentally friendly mode by adopting clean
and efficient technology and installing pollution control systems.

Role of Environmental Engineering for Sustainable Development

So far as contribution of Environmental Engineering for protection of the environment is
concerned, it can be said that role of environmental engineering is commendable. Some of the
contributions of environmental engineering are as follows -
 1. To protect soil erosion for safeguard of forest.
2. Using of Environmental Engineering technology degradation of bio social system can be
prevented.
3. Air pollution can be minimized up to a maximum extent by utilizing Environmental
Engineering.
4. Development of agriculture is necessary and the requirement can be fulfilled through
Environmental Engineering.
5. Environmental Engineering is utilized for preservation of social energy.
6. Global crises on environment can be minimized by utilizing Environmental Engineering
technology.
7. Facilitate for sustainable development of the society.
8. It helps for social and economical development.
Several divisions of Environmental Engineering

1. Environmental impact assessment and mitigation

In this division, engineers and scientists use a systemic identification and evaluation process to
assess the potential impacts of a proposed project , plans, programs, policies, or legislative
actions upon the physical-chemical, biological, cultural, and socioeconomic components on
environmental conditions. They apply scientific and engineering principles to evaluate if there
are likely to be any adverse impacts to water quality, air quality, habitat quality, flora and
fauna, agricultural capacity, traffic impacts, social impacts, ecological impacts, noise impacts,
visual (landscape) impacts, etc. If impacts are expected, they then develop mitigation measures
to limit or prevent such impacts. An example of a mitigation measure would be the creation of
wetlands in a nearby location to mitigate the filling in of wetlands necessary for a road
development if it is not possible to reroute the road.
2. Water supply and treatment
Engineers and scientists work to secure water supplies for potable and agricultural use. They
evaluate the water balance within a watershed and determine the available water supply, the
water needed for various needs in that watershed, the seasonal cycles of water movement
through the watershed and they develop systems to store, treat, and convey water for various
uses. Water is treated to achieve water quality objectives for the end uses. In the case of
potable water supply, water is treated to minimize the risk of infectious disease transmission,
the risk of non-infectious illness, and to create a palatable water flavor. Water distribution
systems are designed and built to provide adequate water pressure and flow rates to meet
various end-user needs such as domestic use, fire suppression, and irrigation.
3. Wastewater conveyance and treatment
Most urban and many rural areas no longer discharge human waste directly to the land through
outhouse, septic, and/or honey bucket systems, but rather deposit such waste into water and
convey it from households via sewer systems. Engineers and scientists develop collection and
treatment systems to carry this waste material away from where people live and produce the
waste and discharge it into the environment. In developed countries, substantial resources are
applied to the treatment and detoxification of this waste before it is discharged into a river,
lake, or ocean system. Developing nations are striving to obtain the resources to develop such
systems so that they can improve water quality in their surface waters and reduce the risk of
water-borne infectious disease.
4. Air quality management
Engineers apply scientific and engineering principles to the design of manufacturing and
combustion processes to reduce air pollutant emissions to acceptable levels. Scrubbers,
electrostatic precipitators, catalytic converters, and various other processes are utilized to
remove particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds (VOC),
reactive organic gases (ROG) and other air pollutants from flue gases and other sources prior to
allowing their emission to the atmosphere.

Building Construction and Planning

 Construction planning is an important step when building a structure because it outlines
the project and provides guidelines to ensure that the project is a success. Project
managers know that having a thorough construction plan can save them time and
money.
 Construction planning is the process of identifying the steps required to build a
structure.
 It involves defining what actions need to be completed, creating an ordered timeline of
events, staffing the project and determining the necessary materials and equipment.
 A well-crafted construction plan is important to keep the project on schedule and within
budget.
 It can also help ensure the overall quality of the project meets your client's standards.
Finally, having a construction plan can increase your team's productivity and efficiency
by streamlining communication.
 Building Planning is the arrangement of various components or units of a building in a
systematic manner so as to form a meaningful and homogeneous structure to meet its
functional purpose.
 The arrangement of the various rooms in the building is known as Planning of Building.
 Building planning is a graphical representation of what a building will look like after
construction.
 It is used by builders and contractors to construct buildings of all kinds. Building
planning is also useful when it is essential to estimate how much a project will cost and
for preparing project budgets building planning is also useful.
 The basic objective of planning the building is to arrange all the units of the building on all
floors at a given level according to their functional requirements. By doing this, one can
make the best use of space available for building.

The followings are the factors affecting the planning of the building,

 The function of the building e.g. residential, industrial, public, commercial, etc.
 Shape and size of the plot
 Topography
 Climatic condition
 Building by-Laws etc.
Principles of Building Planning: Basic principles of building planning

1. Aspect
2. Prospect
3. Furniture Requirements
4. Roominess
5. Grouping
6. Circulation
7. Sanitation
8. Elegance
9. Privacy
10. Flexibility
11. Economy
12. Practical Consideration
1. Aspect
 Aspect is the positioning of rooms in buildings with respect to 4 directions in such a way
that the occupants of buildings would enjoy the natural comforts like sunshine, breeze,
scenery, etc. to the maximum possible extent.

 A room receiving light and air from any particular direction is said to have the aspect of
that direction. All the rooms of a dwelling need a particular aspect.

 Some necessary aspects of commonly constructed rooms are listed below:

2. Prospect

 Prospect in building planning is the view desired by the occupants of the building from
certain of the house. Prospect is dictated by surrounding peculiarities good or bad of the
selected site like a flower garden or garbage dumps.
 It demands the disposition of doors and windows-like aspects. However, a good layout
should not be disturbed for the sake of good prospects only.
 Certain projecting windows or a blind face of the bay with window openings at the sides
would help for the concealment of inside views of a building.

3. Furniture Requirements
 Furniture is a functional requirement of a room. A living room, drawing room, kitchen,
classroom, office room, laboratory, hospital room, etc all have their own furniture
requirements
  A room should have enough space to accommodate all the furniture required for the
maximum number of people without overcrowding.
4. Roominess
 Roominess is obtained by getting the maximum benefit from the minimum dimension of
a room without cramping the plan. By using every nook and corner of the building
advantage of roominess is derived.

 In residential buildings, considerable storage space is required for various purposes

which are provided by making space for wall cupboards, lofts, wooden shelves, etc.
 A rectangular room is more useful than a square room in the same area. The length and
breadth ratio of a good room should be between 1.2 to 1.5
 A ratio of more than that creates a bad effect. A small room should not be made
unnecessarily too high.
5. Grouping

 Grouping in building planning means setting different rooms of a building according to

their inter-relationship.
 The rooms are arranged in the layout in a proper correlation of their functions and in
due proximity to each other.

Grouping in Residential Building Plan

 The dining room should be close to the kitchen.

 The kitchen should be kept away from the main living room.
 Main bedrooms should have independent and separate access from each room
towards the sanitary units.
 In an office buildings, hospitals, etc. the administrative department should be
located centrally for convenience and economy of services
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 Access or internal connection between rooms on the same floor or between floors is
known as circulation
 Circulation between rooms on the same floor is called horizontal circulation like-
passages, corridors, halls, etc
 Circulation between various floors is known as vertical circulation, like- stairs, lifts,
etc. Horizontal Circulation should be independent, short, and straight and not invade
the property of any room
 All the passages should be well-ventilated and lighted. Stairs should also be well-
lighted and ventilated and properly planned in regard to width, rise, and tread. Stairs
should not have winder steps
7. Sanitation
 Sanitation of the building is not only associated with urinals, bathrooms, washbasins,
and sinks but also the overall lighting and ventilation.
 All the parts of a building should have well lighting and ventilation to maintain good
hygienic conditions. This could be done in a natural way or in an artificial way (air
conditioning).
 Necessary provisions to facilitate the cleaning of the building are installed.
 Washing closets, lavatories, urinals, and bathrooms like sanitary conveniences should be
installed adequately in number in relation to the occupant load.
8. Elegance
 Elegance is the overall effect produced by elevation and general layout of the plan of a
building. To get good elegance of a building it is better if elevation is developed first and
then the plan is adjusted accordingly.
 The selection of a site or open plot for the construction of a building greatly affects
elegance.
  A building located in a depression will give bad elegance whereas a building on an
elevated spot gives an impressive appearance. Buildings located on backward sloping
upwards ground give good elevation & elegance.

9. Privacy
 Privacy is an important part of building planning. Privacy may be from one part to
another of the same building or could be from neighboring buildings, streets, etc.
 In residential buildings, every room should have certain privacy which can be secured by
carefully planning the entrance, path-ways, and drives.
 Proper grouping of rooms and good positioning of doors and windows, lobbies, or
screens can give required internal privacy.
 Toilet rooms, bedrooms, W.C., and urinals should have absolute privacy.
10. Flexibility
 Flexibility means planning the rooms in such a way that though originally designed for a
specific purpose, may be used for other purposes also when desired.
 For designing houses for middle-class families or other buildings where the economy is
the main consideration flexibility should always be considered.
 If a large space is needed at a certain time a house to accommodate the gathering.
 It can be obtained by removing a removable partition wall or curtain between the room
and the dining room. Alternatively, an open yard, garden, or verandah can also be
provided.
11. Economy
 The economy is a major factor in building planning.
 To fit the proposed scheme within the limitations of the resources and funds certain
alterations and omissions in the original plan have to make.
 But while considering the economy, the required strength and durability of the structure
should not be compromised.
 Some simple economy-achieving approaches in buildings are,
 Simple elevation, dispensing of porches, lobbies, etc.
 Steeper rise to the stair, wider steps in the stair.
 Reducing the story height to a bare minimum. Standardization of sizes of various
components and materials.
12. Practical Consideration

 Besides all the Principles of planning discussed, the following practical points should be
additionally considered,

 The strength, stability, convenience, and comfort of the occupants of the building,
should be considered first.
 Provisions for future extensions without dismantling should be made in the planning.
 The building should be strong and capable to withstand the likely adverse effects of
natural agencies (earthquake, flood, storm, etc.)
 Elevations should be simple yet attractive. Too many porches may give good elevation
for some time, but in the end, simple designs fit better for generations.
  The larger size of the room should always be considered as far as possible as it can be
shortened by providing partitions but smaller rooms cannot be enlarged easily.

Building Construction Process

 Building construction is the process of creating a structure, such as a building, bridge, or

other infrastructure, from a set of design plans and specifications.
 The construction process involves assembling a variety of materials and components,
such as concrete, steel, wood, and glass, and coordinating a variety of skilled trades and
professionals, such as architects, engineers, contractors, and construction workers, to
bring the design in action.
 This is a general overview of the steps involved in the building construction process,
which can vary depending on the size, complexity, and location of the building project.
Before planning, building construction projects must consider important aspects
of house construction steps like the purpose of construction, utility, financial
proficiency, the demand for work, etc.
 As the decision of building construction is taken, the planning phase is started.

 The process of building construction involves several stages, from planning and design
to the actual construction and completion of a building project.

The following is a general outline of the steps involved in building construction:

A. Pre-Construction Steps

1. To Acquire Land or Plot

2. To Seek Technical Help
3. Prepare Estimation and Budget
4. Permission from Authorities
5. Approach a Builder

B. During Building Construction Steps

1. Site Preparation or Levelling work

2. Excavation and PCC bed
3. Foundation
4. Plinth Beam or Slab
5. Superstructure – Column
6. Brick Masonry Work
7. The Lintel Over Door Window Gaps
8. Floor Slab or Roof Structure
9. Door Window Framing and Fixations
10. Electrical and Plumbing
11. Exterior Finishing
12. Terrace and Roof Finishing
13. Internal Finishes
 14. Woodwork and Fixture Fittings
15. Waterproofing
16. Painting Work

A. Pre-Construction Steps (Phase – I)

1. To Acquire Land or Plot

It is the most important step in building construction. Search for the location of the building
which is best suited for building construction purposes. Be careful while selecting land that has
all the desired facilities available nearby and should be free from all land-related issues. It is
suggested that prior data collection before buying land or a plot either by doing research online
or seeking help from real estate agents or concerned persons regarding the effective cost of the
same.
2. To Seek Technical Help
After selecting the proper land for the building, take the help of a professional architect to
create building designs and take his/her advice. An architect prepares a plan as per building
requirements, number of flats, and shops based on your requirements and budget. Then the
architect consults with a structural engineer for details of the reinforcements to be used, how
deep your foundation will be, the size of gravel to be used, pillar width, etc.
3. Preparing Estimate and Budget
Building construction involves a huge amount of material and budget. After, planning and
structural detailing have been completed these details are transferred to the building
estimator. The building estimator will estimate the material quantity, and quantity of different
items of work, and prepare an abstract sheet that shows the cost of building construction. If
financial resources are limited, we need to seek pre-approval for loans in advance, or else you
may end up in a cash crunch situation.
4. Permission from Authorities
This is important work to do after the project is ready to be executed. For that, we have to take
permission from the local municipal body before you could go for the construction.
Following are the list of document project required before applying for permission. This
document may differ from state to state, but some are essential for every building construction
work.
a) Land survey: A survey of the land has to be carried out with the help of an authorized land
surveyor
b) Soil test report of the land.
c) Land documents.
d) Architecture/ elevation/ sectional drawings.
e) Structural report.
f) Architect Certificate of undertaking on Record and Certificate of the undertaking of Civil
Engineer on Record
5. Approach a Builder
A builder or contractor for construction must be chosen carefully because it is a major factor in
securing building construction quality and timely construction of work. Pre-investigation must
be done about the builder before handing in work. In the contract document, all the work-
related details must be clearly stated. The contract document should cover layout and work
details along with the payment methods, time scales, and costs. The condition of
the contract should be thoroughly checked before signing a final deal.
Building Construction Step (Phase – II)
The following are the building construction steps involved in any type of construction.
1. Site Preparation or Leveling
The construction site must be cleaned before the work is executed. This work involves
the removal of roots of trees, and debris, and leveling the ground area.
2. Excavation and PCC
The foundation of the building ground is excavated with the help of excavating machines as per
the building dimension specified in the drawings.
In this foundation trench, a layer of PCC (Plain cement concrete) is laid in the dug portion
before placing the reinforcements for the foundation.
3. Foundation

The building is supported on the foundation is the lowermost part of the building that is in
contact with the soil.
A building is a load transferred from the superstructure to the soil and needs to be extremely
strong to handle the load.
After the PCC work foundation reinforcement work is started. The foundation’s bottom level
must check before concreting it. The remaining space between the foundation is filled with
earth.
4. Plinth Beam and Slab
After the foundation work is done ground beam formwork preparation is started and poured
with concrete. Over the plinth beam, masonry work is started. And space between the
foundation and the plinth beam is filled with soil.
5. Superstructure – Column
The superstructure is the portion above the plinth level of the building. The main component of
the superstructure is a column and a beam. The columns are built up to slab level and the frame
for further construction is prepared. Masonry work is done using a cement mortar mix. It is a
mixture of cement & sand. During this carefully and as per drawing gaps are laid for doors and
windows during the masonry work.

6. Brick Masonry Work

As the column and beam framework is completed masonry work is started with different
materials such as bricks, concrete blocks, fly ash bricks, etc. according to the building drawing.
Masonry work is done using a cement mortar mix. It is a mixture of cement & sand. During this
carefully and as per drawing gaps are laid for doors and windows during the masonry work .
7. The Lintel over Door Window Gaps
The lintel is constructed on the door and window to support the masonry work over it. After
this further masonry work is done.

8. Floor Slab or Roof Structure

Then the formwork is started to construct the slab resting on the column and beam. Over slab
formwork, slab reinforcement is placed as per the slab detailed drawing .
9. Door Window Framing and Fixations
After that door window frames are fixed at their specified position given in the drawing.

10 & 11. Electrical and Plumbing

As we know buildings are constructed with a clean finish in which electrical and plumbing work
is not visible. They are installed in the walls and slabs such that they are concealed and not
visible after the finishing work is done. The point and pipe ends are left out such that later they
can be finished with the electric fitting and plumbing fixtures.
12. Terrace and Roof Finishing
On top of the slab, waterproofing is done to prevent any leakage in the slab. Generally, terrazzo
tiling is done to prevent the slab from a weathering effect.
13. Internal Finishing
Internal walls are plaster with a smooth finish and flooring is done with tiles. Later on, the walls
are painted or textured.

14. Woodwork and Fixture Fittings

By following the above step, almost all construction work is completed, and then furniture work
is started. Side by side, electrical fitting, switchboard, and plumbing fittings are complete in the
bathrooms and kitchen areas too.
15. Waterproofing

Waterproofing is a method that prevents water from penetrating your house. Waterproofing is
very important as it helps keep your house dry. It helps reduce humidity inside the house and
thereby protects things inside your house from damage caused due to humidity or water
exposure.

16. Painting Work

The most important purpose of house painting is to give our house a long life and adding colors
to it is to give our house a beautiful makeover. The painting work not only adds colors to house
walls but protects their house from all stains and dirt and gives their house a long life, however,
walls have a way of finding some stains. There are various paint qualities that can be used to
protect our house for a long time from stains, mud, sunlight, rain, dirt, etc. from basic paint
to high-quality paint which can give our house 5 to 10 years of extra life and an amazing look
for the exterior and interior as well. The last step of building construction is interior decoration
work completing the building construction with proper furnishing and fabric used.

Construction Materials

Many types of building materials are used in the construction industry to create buildings and
structures for mainly
Cement - Aggregate -Bricks- Cement concrete- Steel

CEMENT
Cement is a binder or an adhesive for different materials used for construction that sets and
becomes hard by adhering to different surfaces of various building materials used in the
construction. It forms a composite material strong enough to withstand the various types of
loads.

Cement is a fine powder made from a combination of limestone, clay, and other minerals. It is a
binding material used in construction to bind other materials such as sand, gravel, and water to
create concrete, mortar, and other building materials. Cement is known for its ability to harden
and set when mixed with water, creating a solid structure that can support heavy loads and
withstand harsh weather conditions. It is a critical component of many construction projects,
including buildings, bridges, roads, and dams.

Cement is available in different types, each with unique properties that make them suitable for
specific applications. These types include Portland cement, which is the most common type of
cement, as well as white cement, rapid hardening cement, and low-heat cement. The use of
cement has revolutionized the construction industry, providing builders and engineers with a
versatile and durable material that can withstand the test of time.

Cement is mostly used as mortar and concrete, in which cement is mixed with aggregates to
form a specific grade of concrete. Mortar is basically a mixture of cement and sand (crushed
stone) having a size of less than 5mm i.e 0.2 inches. On the other hand, Concrete is also a
mixture of aggregates and cement, but both coarse and fine aggregates are present in
proportions. Mortars made of cement are used for binding bricks, blocks, and stone in masonry
walls or as surface renderings. Concrete has a wide range of applications in construction.
Mixtures of soil with Portland cement are used for the construction of the base layer of roads.
Portland cement has applications in the manufacture of bricks, tiles, shingles, pipes, beams,
railroad ties, and various extruded construction operations.
Portland cement consists essentially of compounds of lime (calcium oxide, CaO) mixed
with silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2) and alumina (aluminum oxide, Al2O3). The lime is obtained
from a calcareous (lime-containing) raw material, and the other oxides are derived from an
argillaceous (clayey) material. Additional raw materials such as silica sand, iron oxide (Fe2O3),
and bauxite—containing hydrated aluminum, Al(OH)3—may be used in smaller quantities to
get the desired composition.
Manufacture of Cement

There are four stages in the manufacture of Portland cement,

1. Crushing and Grinding

2. Blending the Materials
3. Burning
4. Grinding

Crushing and Grinding

Soft materials are first crushed, too in two stages. This Grinding can be done in a wet or dry
state, which depends on the process which is in use. However, for grinding in the dry state the
raw materials are needed to be dried in cylindrical rotary dryers. Soft materials are needed to
be broken down through vigorous stirring with the water in wash mills, producing fine slurry,
which is later passed through the screens for removal of oversize particles.

Blending

The next step involved after crushing and grinding is blending the crushed raw materials.
Initially, an approximation of the chemical composition required for specific cement is obtained
through selective quarrying and with control of the raw material fed in the process to the
crushing and grinding plant. In the dry process mixing of the materials in the silos is carried out
by agitation and vigorous circulation which include compressed air. While, in the wet process,
the slurry tanks are needed to be stirred by the means of mechanical action, using compressed
air or both used together.

Burning

Bottle kilns ate the traditional types of kilns followed by chamber kilns and then continuous
shaft kilns were invented. The shaft kiln is used in many countries modern days but the
dominant means of burning is the rotary kiln. When the raw material is fed to the kiln at the
upper end, it slowly moves down the kiln at the firing, end. The fuel used for firing is pulverized
coal, oil, or natural gas. The temperature at the firing end could be as equal as in the range of
1,350 to 1,550 °C or 2,460 to 2,820 °F, depending on the type of raw material being burned. The
burned product comes out from the kiln in the form of small nodules of clinker. These clinkers
are then passed into coolers for cooling. The cooled clinker depending on its properties can be
immediately ground into cement or stored in stockpiles for further use.

Grinding

The clinker and gypsum are ground to form a fine powder in mills similar to those used before
for grinding the raw materials brought directly to mills. Material properly grinned are passed
further while the improperly grinned are again taken to grinding. Sometimes it is required to
add a small amount of grinding aid to feed material. Finished cement is stored in bags and
packages for distribution.

Tests on Cement

Various tests are performed on cement to know its properties, characteristics, and suitability
for use. Some of the tests on cement are discussed below,

1. Fineness
2. Soundness
3. Setting Time
4. Strength

1. Fineness

The fineness of the cement can be tested using sieve analysis tests, however, these days more
sophisticated methods are now largely used. A commonly used method to obtain accurate
results for both control of the grinding process and testing the finished cement measures the
surface area per unit weight of the cement by analyzing the rate of air passage through a bed of
cement. However other methods for finding the fineness of cement depend on the principle of
measuring the particle size distribution by the rate of sedimentation of the cement in kerosene
or by elutriation in an airstream.

2. Soundness

After setting Cement, it should not undergo expansion more than appreciable limits, which
could cause disruption of mortar or concrete. This occurrence shows the soundness of cement.
The soundness of cement is tested by subjecting the set cement to boiling in water or to high-
pressurized steam for a certain period of time. This test shows the presence of free magnesia or
hard-burned free lime in cement.

3. Setting Time

The soundness of cement is tested by subjecting the set cement to boiling in water or to high-
pressurized steam for a certain period of time. This test shows the presence of free magnesia or
hard-burned free lime in cement along with its hardening is continuous processes, though two
points are differentiated for test purposes. The initial setting time of cement is the instance
between the mixing of the cement with water and when the mix has lost plasticity, stiffening to
a certain amount. It roughly states the end of the period when the mix is still wet can be
molded into a required shape. The final setting time of the cement can be defined as the point
at which the cement has acquired a relatively sufficient firmness to resist a certain degree of
pressure.
4. Strength

Cement has the capability to withstand compressive strength however; it is weak in tensile
strength. Hence Reinforced Steel is induced in the cement to provide tensile property to
concrete. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) had specified the requirement
of ratio 1:3 i.e. cement-sand mortar in case of tensile strength and compressive tests on that of
1:2.75 mortar. The strength requirements of cement laid down by various countries in the
world are not directly comparable because of the differences in test methods of each country.

AGGREGATE

Aggregate is a granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone used with a cement to
produce either concrete or mortar. It is the raw material for concrete. Sand, gravel, or crushed
stone are used in the concrete mix and account for approximately 60% to 75% of the total
volume of the concrete. Aggregate is relatively inexpensive and does not enter into complex
chemical reactions with water; it has been customary, therefore, to treat it as inert filler in
concrete and mortar.

Basic functions of Aggregates

 Cheap fillers
 Hard material
 Provide volume stability
 Reduce volume changes
 Provide abrasion resistance
Aggregates are generally classified according to particle size, bulk density, or source sieve.

Coarse aggregate is used to describe particles larger than 4.75 mm, and the term fine aggregate
is used for particles smaller than 4.75mm.

Fine aggregates contain particles in the size range 75 µm to 4.75 mm, and coarse aggregates
from 4.75 to about 40 mm

Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate

Fine Aggregate is smaller in size Coarse Aggregate is bigger in size
Coarse aggregates are retained on 4.75 mm
Fine Aggregates are passes through a 4.75 mm
sieve.
sieve and retain on a 0.075 mm sieve.
It is made of Brick chips (broken bricks), stone
It is made of Sand, stone screenings, burnt
chips (broken stones), gravels,
clays, cinders, fly ash
pebbles, clinkers, cinders
Dolomite aggregates, crushed gravel or stone,
River sand, crushed stone sand, crushed gravel
natural disintegration of rock are the main
sand are the main sources of fine aggregate.
sources of coarse aggregate.
Fine Aggregates possesses a high surface area Coarse Aggregate possesses a low surface area
It filled the void of Coarse Aggregate Coarse aggregate works as inert filler material
 for concrete.
Coarse aggregates are
Fine Aggregates are utilized in plaster, mortar,
primarily utilized in concrete, railway track
concrete, filling of road pavement layers, etc.
ballast, etc.

Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone that, along with
water and Portland cement, are an essential ingredient in concrete. For a good concrete mix,
aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings of
clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of concrete. Aggregates, which
account for 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete, are divided into two distinct
categories--fine and coarse. Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or crushed stone
with most particles passing through a 3/8-inch sieve. Coarse aggregates are any particles
greater than 0.19 inch, but generally range between 3/8 and 1.5 inches in diameter. Gravels
constitute the majority of coarse aggregate used in concrete with crushed stone making up
most of the remainder.

Natural gravel and sand are usually dug or dredged from a pit, river, lake, or seabed. Crushed
aggregate is produced by crushing quarry rock, boulders, cobbles, or large-size gravel. Recycled
concrete is a viable source of aggregate and has been satisfactorily used in granular sub-bases,
soil-cement, and in new concrete.
After harvesting, aggregate is processed: crushed, screened, and washed to obtain proper
cleanliness and gradation. If necessary, a benefaction process such as jigging or heavy media
separation can be used to upgrade the quality. Once processed, the aggregates are handled and
stored to minimize segregation and degradation and prevent contamination.
Aggregates strongly influence concrete's freshly mixed and hardened properties, mixture
proportions, and economy. Consequently, selection of aggregates is an important process.
Although some variation in aggregate properties is expected, characteristics that are
considered include:
 grading
 durability
 particle shape and surface texture
 abrasion and skid resistance
 unit weights and voids
 absorption and surface moisture
Grading refers to the determination of the particle-size distribution for aggregate. Grading
limits and maximum aggregate size are specified because these properties affect the amount of
aggregate used as well as cement and water requirements, workability, pumpability, and
durability of concrete. In general, if the water-cement ratio is chosen correctly, a wide range in
grading can be used without a major effect on strength. When gap-graded aggregate are
specified, certain particle sizes of aggregate are omitted from the size continuum. Gap-graded
aggregate are used to obtain uniform textures in exposed aggregate concrete. Close control of
mix proportions is necessary to avoid segregation.

CEMENT CONCRETE
Concrete, an artificial stone-like mass, is the composite material that is created by mixing
binding material (cement or lime) along with the aggregate (sand, gravel, stone, brick chips,
etc.), water, admixtures, etc in specific proportions. The strength and quality are dependent on
the mixing proportions.

Concrete = Binding Material + Fine & Coarse Aggregate + Water + Admixture (optional)

Concrete is a very necessary and useful material for construction work. Once all the ingredients
-cement, aggregate, and water unit of measurement mixed inside the required proportions,
the cement and water begin a reaction with one another to bind themselves into a hardened
mass. This hardens the rock-like mass in the concrete.

Binding Materials
Binding material is the main element of a concrete material mix. Cement is the most commonly
used binding material. Lime could also be used. When water is mixed with the cement, a paste
is created that coats the aggregates within the mix. The paste hardens, binds the aggregates,
and forms a stone-like substance.
Aggregates
Sand is a fine mixture. Gravel or crushed stone is the coarse mixture in most mixes.
Water
Water is required to with chemicals react with the cement (hydration) and to supply workability
with the concrete. The number of water combined in pounds compared with the number of
cement is named the water/cement quantitative relation.
Concrete admixture is defined as the material other than the aggregate, water and cement
added to improve the properties of concrete.
Concrete admixtures have various functions and they are as follows:
(a) To increase the rate of strength development at early ages – calcium chloride is the most
widely used accelerator,
(b) To retard the initial setting time while pumping concrete over a long distance,
(c) To increase the workability without changing the water content – pozzolana such as fly ash
is used,
(d) To increase the strength,
Most engineering construction uses cement concrete composites as the main building
material. It consists of cement, sand, brick chips, or stone chips of the required size. The usual
proportion is 1:2:4 or 1:3:6. After mixing the required amounts of concrete materials, the mix is
cured with water for 28 days for proper strength building.
Cement concrete is a versatile construction material with a wide range of applications. It can be
used in structural applications such as beams, columns, slabs, and foundations. It can also be
used in non-structural applications such as paving, curbing, and landscaping. Cement concrete
is also a popular choice for precast applications such as pipes, paving stones, and sewer
systems.
The main advantages of cement concrete are its strength, durability, and fire resistance. It is
also relatively low maintenance and can be easily repaired if damaged. However, cement
concrete is a relatively heavy material and can be difficult to work with. It is also susceptible to
cracking and can be damaged by extreme weather conditions.

For enhancing the tensile strength of concrete, steel reinforcements are added. The word
'Reinforced' means 'strengthened' or 'supported'. Reinforced Cement Concrete, therefore, is a
composite material consisting of concrete and steel reinforcements.
The steel reinforcements used in RCC can be in the form of rods, bars, wires, meshes, etc. The
concrete is cast around these steel reinforcement bars or rods to form the desired shape. The
steel reinforcement bars are placed in such a way that they provide enough support to the
concrete against the expected loads.
The steel reinforcement bars are placed in such a way that they provide enough support to the
concrete against the expected loads.
STEEL
Concrete is strong against forces of compression and has low tensile strength and ductility.
Reinforcement materials are needed to withstand shear and tensile forces on the
concrete. Steel is particularly well suited as reinforcement because it bonds well to concrete
and expands at the same rate. When combined, steel and concrete form a new building
material, reinforced concrete.
Steel reinforcement are steel bars that are provided in combination with plain cement concrete
to make it reinforced concrete. Hence these structures form steel reinforced cement concrete
structure (R.C.C). Steel reinforcement is commonly called as ‘rebars’.
Plain concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. Tensile property for concrete
structures is obtained by incorporating steel reinforcement. The steel reinforcement is strong in
both tension and compression. The tensile property provided by the steel reinforcement will
prevent and minimize concrete cracks under tension loads. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of steel reinforcement and concrete are similar in that they undergo similar
expansions during temperature changes. This property will ensure that the concrete is
subjected to minimal stress during temperature variations. The surface of the steel
reinforcement bars is patterned to have a proper bond with the surrounding concrete material.
The two main factors that provide strength to the concrete structures are steel and concrete.
The design engineer will combine both the elements and design the structural element such a
way that the steel resists the induced tensile and shear force, while the concrete takes up the
compressive forces.
The steel reinforcement used in concrete construction is mainly of 4 types. They are:
1. Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bars
2. Cold Worked Steel Bars
3. Mild Steel Plain Bars
4. Pre-stressing Steel Bars
1. Hot Rolled Deformed Bars
Hot rolled deformed bars are most commonly used steel reinforcement for R.C.C structures. As
the name says, the hot rolling of the reinforcement is undergone leaving certain deformations
on its surface in the form of ribs. These ribs help to form a bond with the concrete.
2. Cold Worked Steel Bars
A cold worked reinforcement bar is obtained by letting the hot rolled steel bars to undergo cold
working. In the cold working process, the bars will undergo twisting and drawing. The process is
performed at room temperature. The cold worked steel bars do not undergo a plastic yield thus
have less ductility when compared with hot rolled bars.
3. Mild Steel Plain Bars
The mild steel plain reinforcement bars do not have ribs on their surface. They have a plain
surface. These bars are used for small projects where the major concern is the economy. The
tensile yield strength of these bars has a value of 40000psi.
4. Pre-stressing Steel Bars
The pre-stressing steel reinforcement are steel bars used in the form of strands or tendons.
Multiple strands are employed in concrete in order to perform the pre-stressing action. The
strands are made of multiple wires either 2 or 3 or 7 wire strands. The wires used here are cold
formed and have a high tensile strength ranging from 250000 – 270000 psi. This high strength
helps to effectively pre-stress the concrete.
Advantages of Steel Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement is a reinforcing choice compared to other reinforcing materials due to its
unique advantages. They are:
1. Compatibility with Concrete: The fresh concrete is placed on the formwork mold
already prepared with reinforcement. The steel reinforcement won’t float in concrete
during the concrete placing procedure. Hence, steel reinforcement does not demand
special tying up with formworks.
2. Robustness of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars are robust in nature that they have
the ability to withstand the rigors, the wear and tear during the construction activities.
3. Bent Property of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars once manufactured to standard
size, it can be bent to the required specifications. Hence fabricated steel bars are
delivered easily at the site.
4. Recycling Property: The steel reinforced left over after the service life of a structure is
recycled again and used for new construction.
5. Easily Available: Every region of a country will have a steel supplier or manufacturer.
Hence steel reinforcement is easily available.
Disadvantages of Steel Reinforcement
The main disadvantages of steel reinforcement are mentioned below:
1. Reactive Nature of Steel Reinforcement: In concrete structures where the cover is small
and subjected to external moisture and salt action, the reinforcement undergoes
 reaction and starts to corrode. These can lessen the strength of concrete and finally to
failure.
2. Expensive: The cost of steel reinforcement in high. This will increase the cost of
construction
3. Melts at high temperature: At higher temperatures, the steel reinforcement may melt.
This is the reason why the steel reinforcement are tied up and not welded.

INTRODUCTION TO PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Prefabricated Structure
Prefabricated structures are structures that are built-in pieces at the factory and assembled on
the construction site, prefabricated structures can be portable or non-portable (permanently
fixed to the foundation). Sometimes, the components are cast on the site itself and assembled.
The method in which various components of a construction structure such as linear members,
rigid frames, roof, and floor members are cast into the factory then moved to the location
where they are assembled is called a prefabricated structure. Structures constructed by the
method of pre-fabrication and precast are called prefabricated structures. Prefabricated
structure can be easily transported, assembled and dismantled. After dismantling, it is again
moved to the required location, where it can be reassembled easily.
Methods of prefabricated structure:
1. Plant Pre-construction:
The process in which various precast concrete components are manufactured in the factory
itself called plant pre-fabrication. In-plant pre-fabrication, precast concrete components are
manufactured under precise quality control and each precast member is inspected and tested
then transported to the site. These members are operated by hoist and crane equipment, the
site requires heavy transport fees to carry a precast member.
2. Site Pre-construction:
When the process in which various precast concrete components are manufactured on site
called site pre-fabrication. It does not require any transportation fees to carry the precast
member, but does require lifting equipment to assemble the precast components. Laboratory
testing for various materials required for components and precast components cannot be
performed in site pre-fabrication.
Components of prefabricated structure:

Linear Members
This includes members such as beams, lintels, columns, walls that are forecast for pre-
construction work.
Rigid Members
This includes R.C.C. Portal frames; these rigid frames are manufactured at the factory and then
transported to the required site. This is very difficult to transport a rigid frame to the site
because the overall size of the frame is high therefore desirable to construct a rigid frame on
site.
Roofing and flooring members
The various roofing and floor members are prefabricated in the factory then transported to the
place where they are assembled.
RC Doors and Windows
Reinforced concrete doors and windows are prefabricated at the factory then transported to
site for installation.
Wall Panels
Various wall panels of desired size and shape are prefabricated then transported to the site
where they are assembled.
Advantages of Pre-fabricated Structures
1. Mass manufacturing of units:
Automation of the manufacturing process can save labor and reduce the price; designers can
use units of requirements and prepare entries for details.
2. The discount on prices and construction time on site:
Much less work to be accomplished on-site, saving the use of form work on the site. Precast
units could be erected in a dangerous climate.
3. Effective use of formwork:
Metal formwork is often used and increases the diversity of users up to 200 times. Precast units
can be formed so that they are self-stripping and impose labor exemption on molds.
4. Improved high quality of units:
Factory manufacturing under strict high-quality control. Prefabricated structure units could be
carefully checked after manufacture.
5. The particular shape and surface finishes:
Items can be cast in any place, similar to an upside-down on their sides and so on. Coloured
concrete could be produced by using white cement and colour pigment.
6. Demountable structures:
Bolted connections could be easily dismantled and re-erected in other places. No or little
formwork is required, false work will not be required.
Dis-Advantages of Pre-fabricated Structures
1. Cautious handling of prefabricated parts is required.
2. The strength and corrosion resistance of the prefabricated sections should be
considered to keep them away from joint failure.
3. Prefabricated parts might leak at the joints.
4. Transportation prices could also be higher for voluminous prefabricated sections
5. Massive prefabricated sections require heavy-duty cranes to place in position, exact
measurement, and handling.
6. A small variety of units required might prove to be uneconomical.
 7. Particular connections, similar to special bearings to transmit vertical and horizontal
loads can add value to the system.

EXPECTED QUESTIONS
1. Enumerate the role of Civil Engineer in the society.
2. Discuss the scope of a) Structural Engg b) Geotechnical Engg c) Transportation Engg d)
Water resources Engg d) Environmental Engg
3. What is Building Planning? Explain the principles of building Planning.
4. Write a short note on Building construction.
5. Explain about the various materials used in construction. (Explain about Cement -
Aggregate - Bricks- Cement concrete- Steel)
6. Write a short note on Pre-fabricated structures.