G PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (A) :: KURNOOL

LECTURE NOTES OF BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT-I : Basics of Civil Engineering: Role of Civil Engineers in Society- Various Disciplines of Civil
Engineering- Structural Engineering- Geo-technical Engineering Transportation Engineering -
Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering - Environmental Engineering-Scope of each
discipline - Building Construction and Planning- Construction Materials-Cement - Aggregate -
Bricks- Cement concrete- Steel. Introduction to Prefabricated construction Techniques

ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS IN SOCIETY

Civil engineers play a vital role in society by designing, building, and maintaining the infrastructure that
supports our daily lives. This infrastructure includes roads, bridges, tunnels, airports, water and sewage
systems, and much more. Without the work of civil engineers, we would not have safe, efficient, and
sustainable infrastructure to support our communities and businesses.

Some specific examples of the role of civil engineers in society:

 Designing and building roads and bridges: Civil engineers design and build roads and bridges
that are safe, efficient, and durable. They consider factors such as traffic flow, weather
conditions, and the environment when designing these structures.

 Designing and building water and sewage systems: Civil engineers design and build water and
sewage systems that provide clean water to our homes and businesses and remove wastewater
safely. They also design and build storm water drainage systems to prevent flooding.

 Designing and building dams: Civil engineers design and build dams to control flooding and
provide water for irrigation and drinking.

 Designing other structures: Civil engineers design and build a wide variety of buildings and
other structures, such as homes, schools, hospitals, office buildings, and sports stadiums. They
consider factors such as the type of use, the number of occupants, and the local building codes
when designing these structures.

 Maintaining and repairing infrastructure: Civil engineers also play a role in maintaining and
repairing existing infrastructure. They inspect roads, bridges, water and sewage systems, and
other structures for damage and make repairs as needed.

Overall, civil engineers play a vital role in society by designing, building, and maintaining the
infrastructure that supports our daily lives. They are essential for creating a safe, sustainable, and
prosperous world for all.

 Main role of Civil engineers is in surveying, planning, designing, estimation and execution of
structures.
  To solve different engineering problems with the help of field experience, laboratory
techniques, numerical methods, mathematical models, using computer and information
technology
 To implement management techniques for better management of man, material, machine and
money
 To carry out soil investigation for design of foundations of structures.
 To invite tenders and to select contractor for the work.
 To carry out surveying and levelling and fixing the alignments (center-line) of roads, railways,
canals, tunnels, pipes etc.
 To carry out planning of buildings as per its functional needs and also has role in town and
regional planning.
 To carry out the design of structures as per the principles of structural analysis and design. Civil
engineer should ensure that design is safe, durable and economic.
 To supervise the work during execution and to ensure progress of work.
 To carry out valuation of land or building for the purpose of finding its sale or purchase price or
taxation.
 Civil engineers has to maintain public health by providing pure water for drinking, treating waste
water before disposing in to water course and to collect the solid waste of town and disposing it.
 Civil engineer has to provide basic infrastructure of the structures for projects of many other
engineering disciplines, like to design machine foundations and to provide steel frame structure
and sheds for industries for the mechanical engineering project.
 To construct tunnels for hydropower station, to construction cooling tower for thermal power
stations and to erect transmission towers for electrical lines for electrical engineering.
 To design new transportation systems to accommodate growing populations and reduce traffic
congestion.

VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 Structural Engineering

 Geo-Technical Engineering

 Transportation Engineering

 Hydraulics And Water Resources Engineering

 Environmental Engineering
 SCOPE OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

Structural engineering is the field of engineering that deals with the design of building and other non-
building structures such as the design of machinery, medical equipment, and vehicles, etc. It is the field
of engineering that deals with the structural integrity and strength of a building or structure. Structural
engineering is a specialty of civil engineering that ensures the structures are safe, stable and don’t
collapse under applied loads. Structural engineering is a specialty of civil engineering, where a structural
engineer ensures that architectural components are structurally sound. A structural engineer works
closely with clients, architects, building contractors and other engineers.

A structural engineer will have to perform the following tasks:

 Design models of structures using software

 Perform accurate calculations about each elements of a building
 Assessing the reaction of buildings to pressures and stress
 Finalizing the materials that would be suitable for the structure
 Assessing budget of the project
 Coordinating with construction contractors to ensure that newly erected buildings are
structurally sound applying expert knowledge of the forces that act on various structures
 Using computers and computer-aided design (CAD) technology for simulation purposes

Skills required to become a Structural Engineer

It’s necessary for every structural engineer to possess the following skills:
 Analytical skills
 Detailed orientation
 Creativity
 Strong interpersonal skills
 Communication skills
 Knowledge of CAD software application like ETABS, SAFE, STAAD Pro, PROKON, REVIT, etc.
 Excellent computer skills
 Knowledge of construction management
 Familiarity with codes and regulations specific with the industry
 Up-to-date technical skills

Role of Structural Engineering in building design & sustainable development

 Urbanization, buildings, and civil infrastructure are most important of the world for any
economy. Require lots of natural resources and energy required for their
construction, operation, maintenance and deterioration.
 Structural engineers play an important role in the efficient design, construction and execution of
a building. At the beginning of construction projects in collaboration with structural engineers,
architects, owners and construction managers, architects decide on the effectiveness, feasibility
and cost-effectiveness of concepts. As the project progressed to the design stage, structural
engineers produced the first set of executive design documents.
  Structural engineers have traditionally not identified themselves with environmental
sustainability. Growing concerns for the natural environment, the rise of smart cities, and the
growing importance of sustainability and energy efficiency are driving the demand for structural
engineers.
 Building construction consumes natural resources, potable water and energy. Secondly, the
construction process also contributes to 30% of the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Thus, a sustainable environment is not achievable without contribution of the building &
construction sector, especially the structural engineering domain.
 The renewable energy department is a great leading factor. The concept of sustainability is
gaining popularity these days and it is clearly increasing the applicability in the energy sector.

SCOPE OF GEO-TECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior
of earth materials. It uses the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to to investigate and
study subsurface materials and conditions. It also relies on knowledge of geology, hydrology, geophysics,
and other related sciences. Government and private sector job opportunities are available for
geotechnical engineers.

Geotechnical engineers use their knowledge to determine the chemical, mechanical and physical
properties of soil and rock for the design of earthworks, foundations and retaining structures. A site
investigation of ground conditions is used to determine the depth of foundations, while earthworks may
include embankments, channels, bunds and tunnels, and retaining structures include retaining walls and
earth-filled dams.

Geotechnical engineers investigate and determinate the properties of subsurface conditions and
materials. They also design corresponding earthworks and retaining structures, tunnels, and
structure foundations, and may supervise and evaluate sites, which may further involve site monitoring
as well as the risk assessment and mitigation of natural hazards.

Geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists perform geotechnical investigations to obtain

information on the physical properties of soil and rock underlying and adjacent to, a site to design
earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for the repair of distress to earthworks and
structures caused by subsurface conditions. Geotechnical investigations involve both surface and
subsurface exploration of a site, often including subsurface sampling and laboratory testing of soil
samples retrieved.

Geotechnical or Soil Engineering has vast application in the construction of various civil engineering
works. Some of the important applications are:

o Foundations
o Retaining Structures
o Stability of Slopes
 o Underground Structures
o Pavement design
o Earthen dam

1) Foundations:

Every civil engineering structure, whether it is building, a bridge or a dam is founded on or below the
surface of the earth. Foundations are required to transmit the load of the structure of soil safely and
efficiently.

Fig. Shallow Foundation

When, d is less than or equal to b, it is called shallow foundation.

 Fig. Pile Foundation

when, d > b, it is called deep foundation, where, b=width of footing, d depth of footing

2) Retaining Structures:

When sufficient space is not available for a mass of soil to spread and form a safe slope, a structure is
required to retain the soil.

Fig. Retaining Wall

An earth retaining structure is also required to keep the soil at different levels on its either side.

Fig. Sheet Pile

The retaining structure may be a rigid retaining wall or a sheet like bulkhead which is relatively flexible.

3) Stability of Slopes:

If soil surface is not horizontal, there is a component of weight of the soil which tends to move it
downwards and that causes instability of slopes.

The slope may be natural or man-made.

Fig. Slope in Filling

Fig. Slope in Cutting

Figure shows slopes in filling and cutting. Soil Engineering provides the methods for checking the
stability of slopes.

4) Underground Structures:

Fig. Underground Structures

The design and construction of underground structures, such as tunnels, shafts, conduits require
evaluation of forces exerted by the soil on these structures.

5) Pavement design:
A pavement is a hard crust placed on soil sub grade for the purpose of providing a smooth and strong
surface on which vehicles can move.

Fig. Pavement Details

The pavement consists of surfacing such as a bitumen layer, base and sub base. The behavior of sub
grade under various conditions of loading and environmental changes is studied in Soil engineering.

6) Earthen dam:

Earth dams are huge structures in which soil is used as a construction material.

Fig. Earth Dam

The earth dams are built for creating water reservoirs. Design of earthen dam requires knowledge of soil
engineering.

SCOPE OF TRANSPORTAION ENGINEERING

Transportation engineering is a broad field that can apply to work with roadways, waterways, railways,
airways and other projects. These engineers develop faster, safer and more efficient means of
transportation that ensure they're safe for people using them. Transportation engineering is the
application of modern technology and scientific principles to the design, development and maintenance
of transportation systems. The field of transportation engineering uses the latest developments in
transportation, such as autonomous vehicles and transportation management systems, and uses them
to create the most efficient and effective systems possible for various locales. Transportation
engineering applies to major terminals and the networks that connect them. Any product or system that
moves people and goods from one place to another falls under the scope of transportation engineering.
Transportation engineering is the design, management, and maintenance of transportation systems
using current technology and scientific concepts. Transportation engineering makes advantage of the
most recent advancements in transportation to design the most effective and economical options for
different locations. Transportation engineering encompasses both large terminal and the networks that
interconnect them. Transportation Engineering positions are abundant in educational institutions and
other transportation sectors. As the nation's transportation network expands at a rapid pace, so does
the demand for Transportation Engineers with related expertise. There are also various offers with
multiple employment openings, with the most prominent posts in government firms. It has a broad
scope that includes automobile design, vehicle prototypes, aircraft systems, and computer-integrated
vehicles.

Career Opportunities in Transportation Engineering

1. Airport Engineer

Transportation engineering jobs are also available in the aviation sector. Airport engineers are in charge
of the planning and construction of airports, hangars, and airbases. Airport engineers place a high value
on exact and comprehensive study of air traffic patterns, wind patterns, and air transport safety

2. Highway Engineer

A highway engineer is responsible for the planning, design, and operation of highways, roads, and other
pedestrian and bicycle lanes. This enhances the transportation system by utilising engineering principles.
This also promotes driver security as well as ease.

3. Transportation planner

A transportation planner predicts and overcomes the difficulties associated with the construction of
transportation highways and infrastructure. Planners must strike a balance between the public's needs
and concerns and the program's requirements.

4. Railroad Engineers

Railroad engineers, can operate as railway designers or as operators and emergency responders. Rather
than planning new railways, railroad engineers typically focus on upgrading the country's current
railroads to make them safer and more efficient. Whenever railroad engineers work on the planning,
design, and construction of new railways, it is usually for transportation networks like light rails and
tramways.

5. Construction Engineer

Transportation construction engineers work on-site to coordinate the development of those

undertakings. They assure that a task gets done in time, in accordance with the plan, and is secure for
the personnel involved.

6. Transportation Designer
Transportation designers create transportation projects by implementing automation, engineering
knowledge, and experience. Designers frequently have multiple computer models illustrating the
possible impacts of every design before deciding on a precise concept. The optimal design serves the
aim of the project, has the lowest environmental impact, and is the least expensive.

Transportation engineers research, assess, design and develop new solutions for projects that include:

 Highways and roads

 Traffic control systems such as traffic signals
 Public transit systems
 Railroads and depots
 Seaports
 Waterways
 Airports
 Bridges
 Pavements
Transportation engineering addresses the common issues related to transportation systems and seeks
ways to resolve these for safer, faster and more efficient transportation options. Some of the concerns
that a transportation engineer might address include:
 Manage proper maintenance of the roadways

 Handle traffic flow to minimize congestion

 Prevent transportation accidents

 Select the appropriate pavement and other materials for roads, highways and other types of
construction

 Facilitate efficient trade routes

 Determine the fastest way to transport goods

 Ensure compliance with state and federal construction policies

 Provide safe options for pedestrian traffic

 Operations for transportation companies, public transportation and urban transportation

 Assess the environmental effects of transportation projects

 Develop response plans to mitigate the risks of natural disasters

Transportation engineering combines the science of construction with the creativity required to develop
innovative new systems, installations and solutions. This is a broad career field with positions available
in both the public and private sectors. Transportation engineers may work for the federal or state
government, vehicle manufacturing companies, airline companies, and railroad companies and trucking
businesses. These engineers may also work as consultants for a variety of agencies, providing keen
professional insights that can guide the development of new projects.

A transportation engineer's common job responsibilities may include:

 Supervise work on a construction site

 Determine the traffic impact caused by new development plans

 Set forth goals and criteria for new projects

 Prepare work plans, such as blueprints or contracts

 Create transportation models or designs

 Research and evaluating traffic volume, accidents, practices and efficiency

 Prepare reports on traffic and transportation matters

 Develop models of transportation scenarios

 Prepare budgets and schedules for transportation projects

 Identify solutions for transportation problems

 Inspect transportation systems for legal compliance

 Provide recommendations for traffic policies

 Design new means of transportation

SCOPE OF HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Hydraulic engineers specialize in the flow and transport of water. They design and analyze hydraulic
structures such as dams, canals, and pipelines. They ensure that water flows efficiently through channels
and pipes, manage flood control systems, and optimize water distribution networks. As a Hydraulic
Engineer, one will focus on the building of dams, hydro-electric power development, water distribution
networks, water collection networks, sewage collection, sediment transport and many other projects
that involve transportation and Geotechnical Engineering.

A water resources engineer specializes in managing and developing water-related systems and
resources. They apply engineering principles and techniques to address water-related challenges such as
water supply, water quality, flood control, and water resource sustainability.
Water resources engineers work on a wide range of projects, including the design and construction of
water supply systems, wastewater treatment plants, irrigation systems, and storm water management
infrastructure. They analyze water resources data, conduct hydraulic and hydrological modeling, and
develop strategies to optimize the use and conservation of water resources. Additionally, they may
assess the environmental impact of water-related projects and ensure compliance with regulatory
requirements. Water resources engineers collaborate with various stakeholders, including government
agencies, environmental organizations, and communities, to develop sustainable water management
plans and implement effective solutions for the efficient utilization and protection of water resources.

Water resources engineers are vital for effective and sustainable water management, addressing the
growing challenges related to water supply, quality, and distribution. They play a crucial role in designing
and implementing infrastructure and systems that ensure access to clean drinking water, manage floods
and droughts, and protect water resources.

The duties and responsibilities of a water resources engineer can vary depending on the specific job
role and project requirements. Some common tasks associated with the role:

 Water Resources Planning and Management: Water resources engineers are responsible for
assessing water availability, demand, and usage patterns. They conduct studies to analyze water
resources systems, evaluate the impact of population growth and climate change, and develop
long-term plans for sustainable water management. This may involve developing water supply
strategies, implementing water conservation measures, and evaluating the feasibility of water
infrastructure projects.

 Hydraulic and Hydrological Modeling: Water resources engineers use sophisticated computer
models to simulate and analyze the flow of water in rivers, streams, and other water bodies.
They assess the impact of various factors, such as rainfall, runoff, and water diversions, on water
quantity and quality. By conducting hydraulic and hydrological modeling, they can predict flood
risks, evaluate water distribution systems, and design effective storm water management
solutions.

 Water Supply and Treatment Systems: Water resources engineers design and oversee the
construction of water supply and treatment systems. They develop plans for water extraction,
storage, and distribution, ensuring that communities have access to safe and reliable water
resources. They also design and implement wastewater treatment facilities to ensure proper
disposal or recycling of wastewater, protecting the environment and public health.

 Environmental Impact Assessment: Water resources engineers assess the environmental

impact of water-related projects. They consider factors such as habitat preservation, water
quality protection, and ecological sustainability. They conduct environmental impact
assessments, identify potential risks, and develop mitigation strategies to minimize negative
effects on ecosystems and natural resources.
  Collaboration and Stakeholder Engagement: Water resources engineers collaborate with a
range of stakeholders, including government agencies, community groups, and environmental
organizations. They participate in public meetings, consult with stakeholders, and address
concerns related to water resource management. Effective communication and collaboration
skills are essential to engage stakeholders, gain support for projects, and ensure that the needs
and interests of all parties are considered.

Water resources engineering is a broad field with various specialized areas. Based on their specific areas
of expertise water resources engineers may work as:

 Water Supply Engineer: These engineers focus on designing and managing water supply
systems, including water sources, treatment plants, distribution networks, and storage facilities.
They work to ensure the availability of clean and safe drinking water for communities.

 Hydrologist: Hydrologists study the movement, distribution, and quality of water in the
environment. They assess precipitation, evaporation, and runoff patterns, and use modeling
techniques to analyze water availability and predict the behavior of water systems. They play a
crucial role in water resource planning, flood management, and environmental impact
assessments.

 Hydraulic Engineer: Hydraulic engineers specialize in the flow and transport of water. They
design and analyze hydraulic structures such as dams, levees, canals, and pipelines. They ensure
that water flows efficiently through channels and pipes, manage flood control systems, and
optimize water distribution networks.

 Storm water Engineer: Storm water engineers focus on managing and controlling storm water
runoff to prevent flooding and minimize water pollution. They design and implement storm
water management systems, including detention ponds, rain gardens, green infrastructure, and
drainage networks, to effectively manage and treat storm water.

 Wastewater Engineer: Wastewater engineers specialize in the treatment and management of

wastewater. They design and oversee the construction of wastewater treatment plants,
collection systems, and disposal methods. They ensure the safe and environmentally responsible
treatment of wastewater before it is released back into the environment.

 Water Resources Planner: Water resources planners work on the strategic planning and
management of water resources. They assess water demands, develop water allocation plans,
and coordinate with stakeholders to balance water needs among various sectors, such as
agriculture, industry, and the environment. They analyze water availability, plan for drought or
water scarcity situations, and develop long-term water resource management strategies.
 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Environmental Engineering is the application of science and engineering principles that provide a better
environment, to give healthy water, air and land for human habitation and other living things, and to
rehabilitate polluted areas. In addition, it focuses on finding appropriate solutions in the field of public
health, such as arthropod-related diseases, and in enforcing laws that promote adequate sanitation in
urban, rural, and recreational areas. The main task of environmental engineers is to protect public
health by protecting (from further degradation), preserving (the present condition of), and enhancing
the environment.

The Importance of Environmental Engineering to Society

The world today faces many environmental problems, ranging from local problems such as groundwater
depletion to global problems such as climate change. These problems can only be solved when everyone
cares about the environment. Therefore, everyone needs to be informed about the various causes,
consequences and remedies of environmental problems. It is therefore necessary to preface their
consideration with the statements of the broader characteristic divisions such as-

 It guides us on how our developmental and daily activities affect the environment and how we
are affected by changes in environmental conditions.
 It guides us to create a pollution free environment (which includes clean air, water, land and
food) by adopting various methods of prevention and control of pollution.
 It guides our natural resources such as water, forests, minerals and fossil fuels to be utilized in
an efficient way, with maximum utility and minimum waste by adopting conservation and
recycling strategies.
 Adopts the above three characteristics, namely, knowing one’s environmental impact,
prevention and control of pollution, and efficiently utilizing resources efficiently in daily activities
to lead the general public in an environmentally friendly way.
 It allows industries to operate in an environmentally friendly mode by adopting clean and
efficient technology and installing pollution control systems.
Role of Environmental Engineering for Sustainable Development
So far as contribution of Environmental Engineering for protection of the environment is concerned, it
can be said that role of environmental engineering is commendable. Some of the contributions of
environmental engineering are as follows-

1. To protect soil erosion for safeguard of forest.

2. Using of Environmental Engineering technology degradation of bio social system can be
prevented.
 3. Air pollution can be minimized up to a maximum extent by utilizing Environmental Engineering.
4. Development of agriculture is necessary and the requirement can be fulfilled through
Environmental Engineering.
5. Environmental Engineering is utilized for preservation of social energy.
6. Global crises on environment can be minimized by utilizing Environmental Engineering
technology.
7. Facilitate for sustainable development of the society.
8. It helps for social and economical development.
Several divisions of Environmental Engineering
1. Environmental impact assessment and mitigation
In this division, engineers and scientists use a systemic identification and evaluation process to assess
the potential impacts of a proposed project , plans, programs, policies, or legislative actions upon the
physical-chemical, biological, cultural, and socioeconomic components on environmental
conditions. They apply scientific and engineering principles to evaluate if there are likely to be any
adverse impacts to water quality, air quality, habitat quality, flora and fauna, agricultural capacity, traffic
impacts, social impacts, ecological impacts, noise impacts, visual (landscape) impacts, etc. If impacts are
expected, they then develop mitigation measures to limit or prevent such impacts. An example of a
mitigation measure would be the creation of wetlands in a nearby location to mitigate the filling in of
wetlands necessary for a road development if it is not possible to reroute the road.
2. Water supply and treatment
Engineers and scientists work to secure water supplies for potable and agricultural use. They evaluate
the water balance within a watershed and determine the available water supply, the water needed for
various needs in that watershed, the seasonal cycles of water movement through the watershed and
they develop systems to store, treat, and convey water for various uses. Water is treated to achieve
water quality objectives for the end uses. In the case of potable water supply, water is treated to
minimize the risk of infectious disease transmission, the risk of non-infectious illness, and to create a
palatable water flavor. Water distribution systems are designed and built to provide adequate water
pressure and flow rates to meet various end-user needs such as domestic use, fire suppression, and
irrigation.
3. Wastewater conveyance and treatment
Most urban and many rural areas no longer discharge human waste directly to the land through
outhouse, septic, and/or honey bucket systems, but rather deposit such waste into water and convey it
from households via sewer systems. Engineers and scientists develop collection and treatment systems
to carry this waste material away from where people live and produce the waste and discharge it into
the environment. In developed countries, substantial resources are applied to the treatment and
detoxification of this waste before it is discharged into a river, lake, or ocean system. Developing nations
are striving to obtain the resources to develop such systems so that they can improve water quality in
their surface waters and reduce the risk of water-borne infectious disease.
4. Air quality management
Engineers apply scientific and engineering principles to the design of manufacturing and combustion
processes to reduce air pollutant emissions to acceptable levels. Scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators,
catalytic converters, and various other processes are utilized to remove particulate matter, nitrogen
oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds (VOC), reactive organic gases (ROG) and other air
pollutants from flue gases and other sources prior to allowing their emission to the atmosphere.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND PLANNING

Construction planning involves identifying all the required steps to build a structure, splitting them into
defined activities, ordering these steps logically, and determining the necessary materials, manpower,
and equipment. Construction planning is an important step when building a structure because it outlines
the project and provides guidelines to ensure that the project is a success. Project managers know that
having a thorough construction plan can save them time and money.

Construction planning is the process of identifying the steps required to build a structure. It involves
defining what actions need to be completed, creating an ordered timeline of events, staffing the project
and determining the necessary materials and equipment. A well-crafted construction plan is important
to keep the project on schedule and within budget. It can also help ensure the overall quality of the
project meets your client's standards. Finally, having a construction plan can increase your team's
productivity and efficiency by streamlining communication.

Building Planning is the arrangement of various components or units of a building in a systematic

manner so as to form a meaningful and homogeneous structure to meet its functional purpose. The
arrangement of the various rooms in the building is known as Planning of Building.

Building planning is a graphical representation of what a building will look like after construction. It is
used by builders and contractors to construct buildings of all kinds. Building planning is also useful when
it is essential to estimate how much a project will cost and for preparing project budgets building
planning is also useful.

The basic objective of planning the building is to arrange all the units of the building on all floors at a
given level according to their functional requirements. By doing this, one can make the best use of space
available for building.

The followings are the factors affecting the planning of the building,

1. The function of the building e.g. residential, industrial, public, commercial, etc.
2. Shape and size of the plot
3. Topography
4. Climatic condition
5. Building by-Laws etc.
Principles of Building Planning
Basic principles of building planning

1. Aspect
2. Prospect
3. Furniture Requirements
 4. Roominess
5. Grouping
6. Circulation
7. Sanitation
8. Elegance
9. Privacy
10. Flexibility
11. Economy
12. Practical Consideration
1. Aspect
Aspect is the positioning of rooms in buildings with respect to 4 directions in such a way that the
occupants of buildings would enjoy the natural comforts like sunshine, breeze, scenery, etc. to the
maximum possible extent. A room receiving light and air from any particular direction is said to have the
aspect of that direction. All the rooms of a dwelling need a particular aspect. Some necessary aspects of
commonly constructed rooms are listed below:

2. Prospect
Prospect in building planning is the view desired by the occupants of the building from certain of the
house. Prospect is dictated by surrounding peculiarities good or bad of the selected site like a flower
garden or garbage dumps. It demands the disposition of doors and windows-like aspects. However, a
good layout should not be disturbed for the sake of good prospects only. Certain projecting windows or
a blind face of the bay with window openings at the sides would help for the concealment of inside
views of a building.

3. Furniture Requirements
Furniture is a functional requirement of a room. A living room, drawing room, kitchen, classroom, office
room, laboratory, hospital room, etc. all have their own furniture requirements.

A room should have enough space to accommodate all the furniture required for the maximum number
of people without overcrowding.
4. Roominess
Roominess is obtained by getting the maximum benefit from the minimum dimension of a room without
cramping the plan. By using every nook and corner of the building advantage of roominess is derived.
In residential buildings, considerable storage space is required for various purposes which are provided
by making space for wall cupboards, lofts, wooden shelves, etc. A rectangular room is more useful than
a square room in the same area. The length and breadth ratio of a good room should be between 1.2 to
1.5. A ratio of more than that creates a bad effect. A small room should not be made unnecessarily too
high.

5. Grouping

Grouping in building planning means setting different rooms of a building according to their inter-
relationship. The rooms are arranged in the layout in a proper correlation of their functions and in due
proximity to each other.

Grouping In Residential Building Plan

 The dining room should be close to the kitchen.

 The kitchen should be kept away from the main living room.
 Main bedrooms should have independent and separate access from each room towards the
sanitary units.
 In an office buildings, hospitals, etc. the administrative department should be located centrally
for convenience and economy of services.
6. Circulation
Access or internal connection between rooms on the same floor or between floors is known as
circulation. Circulation between rooms on the same floor is called horizontal circulation like- passages,
corridors, halls, etc. Circulation between various floors is known as vertical circulation, like- stairs, lifts,
etc. Horizontal Circulation should be independent, short, and straight and not invade the property of
any room. All the passages should be well-ventilated and lighted. Stairs should also be well-lighted and
ventilated and properly planned in regard to width, rise, and tread. Stairs should not have winder steps.
7. Sanitation
Sanitation of the building is not only associated with urinals, bathrooms, washbasins, and sinks but also
the overall lighting and ventilation. All the parts of a building should have well lighting and ventilation to
maintain good hygienic conditions. This could be done in a natural way or in an artificial way (air
conditioning). Necessary provisions to facilitate the cleaning of the building be installed. Washing
closets, lavatories, urinals, and bathrooms like sanitary conveniences should be installed adequately in
number in relation to the occupant load.
8. Elegance
Elegance is the overall effect produced by elevation and general layout of the plan of a building. To get
good elegance of a building it is better if elevation is developed first and then the plan is adjusted
accordingly. The selection of a site or open plot for the construction of a building greatly affects
elegance. A building located in a depression will give bad elegance whereas a building on an elevated
spot gives an impressive appearance. Buildings located on backward sloping upwards ground give good
elevation & elegance.
9. Privacy
Privacy is an important part of building planning. Privacy may be from one part to another of the same
building or could be from neighboring buildings, streets, etc. In residential buildings, every room should
have certain privacy which can be secured by carefully planning the entrance, path-ways, and drives.
Proper grouping of rooms, and good positioning of doors and windows, lobbies, or screens can give
required internal privacy. Toilet rooms, bedrooms, w.c., and urinals should have absolute privacy.
10. Flexibility
Flexibility means planning the rooms in such a way that though originally designed for a specific
purpose, may be used for other purposes also when desired. For designing houses for middle-class
families or other buildings where the economy is the main consideration flexibility should always be
considered. If a large space is needed at a certain time a house to accommodate the gathering. It can be
obtained by removing a removable partition wall or curtain between the room and the dining room.
Alternatively, an open yard, garden, or verandah can also be provided.
11. Economy
The economy is a major factor in building planning. To fit the proposed scheme within the limitations of
the resources and funds certain alterations and omissions in the original plan have to make. But while
considering the economy, the required strength and durability of the structure should not be
compromised.

Some simple economy-achieving approaches in buildings are,

 Simple elevation, dispensing of porches, lobbies, etc.

 Steeper rise to the stair, wider steps in the stair.

 Reducing the story height to a bare minimum. Standardization of sizes of various components
and materials.
12. Practical Consideration

Besides all the Principles of planning discussed, the following practical points should be additionally
considered,

1. The strength, stability, convenience, and comfort of the occupants of the building, should be
considered first.
 2. Provisions for future extensions without dismantling should be made in the planning.
3. The building should be strong and capable to withstand the likely adverse effects of natural
agencies (earthquake, flood, storm, etc.)
4. Elevations should be simple yet attractive. Too many porches may give good elevation for some
time, but in the end, simple designs fit better for generations.
5. The larger size of the room should always be considered as far as possible as it can be shortened
by providing partitions but smaller rooms cannot be enlarged easily.

Building Construction Process

Building construction is the process of creating a structure, such as a building, bridge, or other
infrastructure, from a set of design plans and specifications. The construction process involves
assembling a variety of materials and components, such as concrete, steel, wood, and glass, and
coordinating a variety of skilled trades and professionals, such as architects, engineers, contractors, and
construction workers, to bring the design in action. This is a general overview of the steps involved in
the building construction process, which can vary depending on the size, complexity, and location of the
building project. Before planning, building construction projects must consider important aspects
of house construction steps like the purpose of construction, utility, financial proficiency, the demand
for work, etc. As the decision of building construction is taken, the planning phase is started.

The process of building construction involves several stages, from planning and design to the actual
construction and completion of a building project. The following is a general outline of the steps
involved in building construction:

A. Pre-Construction Steps

1. To Acquire Land or Plot

2. To Seek Technical Help

3. Prepare Estimation and Budget

4. Permission from Authorities

5. Approach a Builder

B. During Building Construction Steps

1. Site Preparation or Levelling work

2. Excavation and PCC bed
3. Foundation
4. Plinth Beam or Slab
5. Superstructure – Column
6. Brick Masonry Work
7. The Lintel Over Door Window Gaps
8. Floor Slab or Roof Structure
9. Door Window Framing and Fixations
 10. Electrical and Plumbing
11. Exterior Finishing
12. Terrace and Roof Finishing
13. Internal Finishes
14. Woodwork and Fixture Fittings
15. Waterproofing
16. Painting Work

A. Pre-Construction Steps (Phase – I)

1. To Acquire Land or Plot
It is the most important step in building construction. Search for the location of the building which is
best suited for building construction purposes. Be careful while selecting land that has all the desired
facilities available nearby and should be free from all land-related issues. It is suggested that prior data
collection before buying land or a plot either by doing research online or seeking help from real estate
agents or concerned persons regarding the effective cost of the same.
2. To Seek Technical Help
After selecting the proper land for the building, take the help of a professional architect to create
building designs and take his/her advice. An architect prepares a plan as per building requirements,
number of flats, and shops based on your requirements and budget. Then the architect consults with a
structural engineer for details of the reinforcements to be used, how deep your foundation will be, the
size of gravel to be used, pillar width, etc.
3. Preparing Estimate and Budget
Building construction involves a huge amount of material and budget. After, planning and structural
detailing have been completed these details are transferred to the building estimator. The building
estimator will estimate the material quantity, and quantity of different items of work, and prepare an
abstract sheet that shows the cost of building construction. If financial resources are limited, we need to
seek pre-approval for loans in advance, or else you may end up in a cash crunch situation.
4. Permission from Authorities
This is important work to do after the project is ready to be executed. For that, we have to take
permission from the local municipal body before you could go for the construction.
Following are the list of document project required before applying for permission. This document may
differ from state to state, but some are essential for every building construction work.
a) Land survey: A survey of the land has to be carried out with the help of an authorized land surveyor
b) Soil test report of the land.
c) Land documents.
d) Architecture/ elevation/ sectional drawings.
e) Structural report.
f) Architect Certificate of undertaking on Record and Certificate of the undertaking of Civil Engineer on
Record
5. Approach a Builder
A builder or contractor for construction must be chosen carefully because it is a major factor in securing
building construction quality and timely construction of work. Pre-investigation must be done about the
builder before handing in work. In the contract document, all the work-related details must be clearly
stated. The contract document should cover layout and work details along with the payment methods,
time scales, and costs. The condition of the contract should be thoroughly checked before signing a final
deal.
Building Construction Step (Phase – II)
The following are the building construction steps involved in any type of construction.
1. Site Preparation or Leveling
The construction site must be cleaned before the work is executed. This work involves the removal of
roots of trees, and debris, and leveling the ground area.
2. Excavation and PCC
The foundation of the building ground is excavated with the help of excavating machines as per the
building dimension specified in the drawings.
In this foundation trench, a layer of PCC (Plain cement concrete) is laid in the dug portion before placing
the reinforcements for the foundation.
3. Foundation

The building is supported on the foundation is the lowermost part of the building that is in contact with
the soil.
A building is a load transferred from the superstructure to the soil and needs to be extremely strong to
handle the load.
After the PCC work foundation reinforcement work is started. The foundation’s bottom level must check
before concreting it. The remaining space between the foundation is filled with earth.
4. Plinth Beam and Slab

After the foundation work is done ground beam formwork preparation is started and poured with
concrete. Over the plinth beam, masonry work is started. And space between the foundation and the
plinth beam is filled with soil.
5. Superstructure – Column
The superstructure is the portion above the plinth level of the building. The main component of
the superstructure is a column and a beam. The columns are built up to slab level and the frame for
further construction is prepared. Masonry work is done using a cement mortar mix. It is a mixture of
cement & sand. During this carefully and as per drawing gaps are laid for doors and windows during the
masonry work.

6. Brick Masonry Work

As the column and beam framework is completed masonry work is started with different materials such as bricks,
concrete blocks, fly ash bricks, etc. according to the building drawing. Masonry work is done using a cement mortar
mix. It is a mixture of cement & sand. During this carefully and as per drawing gaps are laid for doors and windows
during the masonry work.
7. The Lintel Over Door Window Gaps
The lintel is constructed on the door and window to support the masonry work over it. After this further
masonry work is done.

8. Floor Slab or Roof Structure

Then the formwork is started to construct the slab resting on the column and beam. Over slab
formwork, slab reinforcement is placed as per the slab detailed drawing.

9. Door Window Framing and Fixations

After that door window frames are fixed at their specified position given in the drawing.

10. Electrical and Plumbing

As we know buildings are constructed with a clean finish in which electrical and plumbing work is not
visible. They are installed in the walls and slabs such that they are concealed and not visible after the
finishing work is done. The point and pipe ends are left out such that later they can be finished with the
electric fitting and plumbing fixtures.
12. Terrace and Roof Finishing
On top of the slab, waterproofing is done to prevent any leakage in the slab. Generally, terrazzo tiling is
done to prevent the slab from a weathering effect.

13. Internal Finishing

Internal walls are plaster with a smooth finish and flooring is done with tiles. Later on, the walls are
painted or textured.
14. Woodwork and Fixture Fittings
By following the above step, almost all construction work is completed, and then furniture work is
started. Side by side, electrical fitting, switchboard, and plumbing fittings are complete in the bathrooms
and kitchen areas too.
15. Waterproofing
Waterproofing is a method that prevents water from penetrating your house. Waterproofing is very
important as it helps keep your house dry. It helps reduce humidity inside the house and thereby
protects things inside your house from damage caused due to humidity or water exposure.

16. Painting Work

The most important purpose of house painting is to give our house a long life and adding colors to it is to
give our house a beautiful makeover. The painting work not only adds colors to house walls but protects
their house from all stains and dirt and gives their house a long life, however, walls have a way of finding
some stains. There are various paint qualities that can be used to protect our house for a long time from
stains, mud, sunlight, rain, dirt, etc. from basic paint to high-quality paint which can give our house 5 to
10 years of extra life and an amazing look for the exterior and interior as well. The last step of building
construction is interior decoration work completing the building construction with proper furnishing and
fabric used.

Construction Materials
 Cement
 Aggregate
 Bricks
 Cement concrete
 Steel
 CEMENT
Cement is a binder or an adhesive for different materials used for construction that sets and becomes
hard by adhering to different surfaces of various building materials used in the construction. It forms a
composite material strong enough to withstand the various types of loads.

Cement is a fine powder made from a combination of limestone, clay, and other minerals. It is a binding
material used in construction to bind other materials such as sand, gravel, and water to create concrete,
mortar, and other building materials. Cement is known for its ability to harden and set when mixed with
water, creating a solid structure that can support heavy loads and withstand harsh weather conditions.
It is a critical component of many construction projects, including buildings, bridges, roads, and dams.

Cement is available in different types, each with unique properties that make them suitable for specific
applications. These types include Portland cement, which is the most common type of cement, as well
as white cement, rapid hardening cement, and low-heat cement. The use of cement has revolutionized
the construction industry, providing builders and engineers with a versatile and durable material that
can withstand the test of time.

Cement is mostly used as mortar and concrete, in which cement is mixed with aggregates to form a
specific grade of concrete. Mortar is basically a mixture of cement and sand (crushed stone) having a
size of less than 5mm i.e 0.2 inches. On the other hand, Concrete is also a mixture of aggregates and
cement, but both coarse and fine aggregates are present in proportions. Mortars made of cement are
used for binding bricks, blocks, and stone in masonry walls or as surface renderings. Concrete has a wide
range of applications in construction. Mixtures of soil with Portland cement are used for the
construction of the base layer of roads. Portland cement has applications in the manufacture of bricks,
tiles, shingles, pipes, beams, railroad ties, and various extruded construction operations.
Portland cement consists essentially of compounds of lime (calcium oxide, CaO) mixed with silica (silicon
dioxide, SiO2) and alumina (aluminum oxide, Al2O3). The lime is obtained from a calcareous (lime-
containing) raw material, and the other oxides are derived from an argillaceous (clayey) material.
Additional raw materials such as silica sand, iron oxide (Fe2O3), and bauxite—containing hydrated
aluminum, Al(OH)3—may be used in smaller quantities to get the desired composition.
Manufacture of Cement
There are four stages in the manufacture of Portland cement,
1. Crushing and Grinding

2. Blending the Materials

3. Burning

4. Grinding

Crushing and Grinding

Soft materials are first crushed, too in two stages. This Grinding can be done in a wet or dry state, which
depends on the process which is in use. However, for grinding in the dry state the raw materials are
needed to be dried in cylindrical rotary dryers. Soft materials are needed to be broken down through
vigorous stirring with the water in wash mills, producing fine slurry, which is later passed through the
screens for removal of oversize particles.
Blending
The next step involved after crushing and grinding is blending the crushed raw materials. Initially, an
approximation of the chemical composition required for specific cement is obtained through selective
quarrying and with control of the raw material fed in the process to the crushing and grinding plant. In
the dry process mixing of the materials in the silos is carried out by agitation and vigorous circulation
which include compressed air. While, in the wet process, the slurry tanks are needed to be stirred by the
means of mechanical action, using compressed air or both used together.
Burning
Bottle kilns ate the traditional types of kilns followed by chamber kilns and then continuous shaft kilns
were invented. The shaft kiln is used in many countries modern days but the dominant means of burning
is the rotary kiln. When the raw material is fed to the kiln at the upper end, it slowly moves down the
kiln at the firing, end. The fuel used for firing is pulverized coal, oil, or natural gas. The temperature at
the firing end could be as equal as in the range of 1,350 to 1,550 °C or 2,460 to 2,820 °F, depending on
the type of raw material being burned. The burned product comes out from the kiln in the form of small
nodules of clinker. These clinkers are then passed into coolers for cooling. The cooled clinker depending
on its properties can be immediately ground into cement or stored in stockpiles for further use.
Grinding
The clinker and gypsum are ground to form a fine powder in mills similar to those used before for
grinding the raw materials brought directly to mills. Material properly grinned are passed further while
the improperly grinned are again taken to grinding. Sometimes it is required to add a small amount of
grinding aid to feed material. Finished cement is stored in bags and packages for distribution.
Tests on Cement
Various tests are performed on cement to know its properties, characteristics, and suitability for use.
Some of the tests on cement are discussed below,
1. Fineness

2. Soundness

3. Setting Time

4. Strength

1. Fineness
The fineness of the cement can be tested using sieve analysis tests, however, these days more
sophisticated methods are now largely used. A commonly used method to obtain accurate results for
both control of the grinding process and testing the finished cement measures the surface area per unit
weight of the cement by analyzing the rate of air passage through a bed of cement. However other
methods for finding the fineness of cement depend on the principle of measuring the particle size
distribution by the rate of sedimentation of the cement in kerosene or by elutriation in an airstream.

2. Soundness
After setting Cement, it should not undergo expansion more than appreciable limits, which could cause
disruption of mortar or concrete. This occurrence shows the soundness of cement. The soundness of
cement is tested by subjecting the set cement to boiling in water or to high-pressurized steam for a
certain period of time. This test shows the presence of free magnesia or hard-burned free lime in
cement.
3. Setting Time
The soundness of cement is tested by subjecting the set cement to boiling in water or to high-
pressurized steam for a certain period of time. This test shows the presence of free magnesia or hard-
burned free lime in cement along with its hardening is continuous processes, though two points are
differentiated for test purposes. The initial setting time of cement is the instance between the mixing of
the cement with water and when the mix has lost plasticity, stiffening to a certain amount. It roughly
states the end of the period when the mix is still wet can be molded into a required shape. The final
setting time of the cement can be defined as the point at which the cement has acquired a relatively
sufficient firmness to resist a certain degree of pressure.
4. Strength
Cement has the capability to withstand compressive strength however; it is weak in tensile strength.
Hence Reinforced Steel is induced in the cement to provide tensile property to concrete. The American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) had specified the requirement of ratio 1:3 i.e. cement-sand
mortar in case of tensile strength and compressive tests on that of 1:2.75 mortar. The strength
requirements of cement laid down by various countries in the world are not directly comparable
because of the differences in test methods of each country.
AGGREGATE

Aggregate is a granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone used with a cement to produce
either concrete or mortar. It is the raw material for concrete. Sand, gravel, or crushed stone are used in
the concrete mix and account for approximately 60% to 75% of the total volume of the concrete.
Aggregate is relatively inexpensive and does not enter into complex chemical reactions with water; it
has been customary, therefore, to treat it as inert filler in concrete and mortar.
Basic functions of Aggregates
 Cheap fillers
 Hard material
 Provide volume stability
 Reduce volume changes
 Provide abrasion resistance
Aggregates are generally classified according to particle size, bulk density, or source sieve.

Coarse aggregate is used to describe particles larger than 4.75 mm, and the term fine aggregate is used
for particles smaller than 4.75mm.

Fine aggregates contain particles in the size range 75 µm to 4.75 mm, and coarse aggregates from 4.75
to about 40 mm

Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate

Fine Aggregate is smaller in size Coarse Aggregate is bigger in size
Fine Aggregates are passes through a 4.75 mm Coarse aggregates are retained on 4.75 mm sieve.
sieve and retain on a 0.075 mm sieve.
It is made of Brick chips (broken bricks), stone
It is made of Sand, stone screenings, burnt clays,
chips (broken stones), gravels, pebbles, clinkers,
cinders, fly ash
cinders
Dolomite aggregates, crushed gravel or stone,
River sand, crushed stone sand, crushed gravel
natural disintegration of rock are the main sources
sand are the main sources of fine aggregate.
of coarse aggregate.
 Fine Aggregates possesses a high surface area Coarse Aggregate possesses a low surface area
Coarse aggregate works as inert filler material
It filled the void of Coarse Aggregate
for concrete.
Coarse aggregates are
Fine Aggregates are utilized in plaster, mortar,
primarily utilized in concrete, railway track ballast,
concrete, filling of road pavement layers, etc.
etc.

Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone that, along with water and
Portland cement, are an essential ingredient in concrete. For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to
be clean, hard, strong particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials
that could cause the deterioration of concrete. Aggregates, which account for 60 to 75 percent of the
total volume of concrete, are divided into two distinct categories--fine and coarse. Fine aggregates
generally consist of natural sand or crushed stone with most particles passing through a 3/8-inch sieve.
Coarse aggregates are any particles greater than 0.19 inch, but generally range between 3/8 and 1.5
inches in diameter. Gravels constitute the majority of coarse aggregate used in concrete with crushed
stone making up most of the remainder.

Natural gravel and sand are usually dug or dredged from a pit, river, lake, or seabed. Crushed aggregate
is produced by crushing quarry rock, boulders, cobbles, or large-size gravel. Recycled concrete is a viable
source of aggregate and has been satisfactorily used in granular sub-bases, soil-cement, and in new
concrete.
After harvesting, aggregate is processed: crushed, screened, and washed to obtain proper cleanliness
and gradation. If necessary, a benefaction process such as jigging or heavy media separation can be used
to upgrade the quality. Once processed, the aggregates are handled and stored to minimize segregation
and degradation and prevent contamination.
Aggregates strongly influence concrete's freshly mixed and hardened properties, mixture proportions,
and economy. Consequently, selection of aggregates is an important process. Although some variation
in aggregate properties is expected, characteristics that are considered include:
 grading
 durability
 particle shape and surface texture
 abrasion and skid resistance
 unit weights and voids
 absorption and surface moisture
Grading refers to the determination of the particle-size distribution for aggregate. Grading limits and
maximum aggregate size are specified because these properties affect the amount of aggregate used as
well as cement and water requirements, workability, pumpability, and durability of concrete. In general,
if the water-cement ratio is chosen correctly, a wide range in grading can be used without a major effect
on strength. When gap-graded aggregate are specified, certain particle sizes of aggregate are omitted
from the size continuum. Gap-graded aggregate are used to obtain uniform textures in exposed
aggregate concrete. Close control of mix proportions is necessary to avoid segregation.

CEMENT CONCRETE
Concrete, an artificial stone-like mass, is the composite material that is created by mixing binding
material (cement or lime) along with the aggregate (sand, gravel, stone, brick chips, etc.), water,
admixtures, etc in specific proportions. The strength and quality are dependent on the mixing
proportions.

Concrete = Binding Material + Fine & Coarse Aggregate + Water + Admixture (optional)

Concrete is a very necessary and useful material for construction work. Once all the ingredients -
cement, aggregate, and water unit of measurement mixed inside the required proportions,
the cement and water begin a reaction with one another to bind themselves into a hardened mass. This
hardens the rock-like mass in the concrete.

Binding Materials
Binding material is the main element of a concrete material mix. Cement is the most commonly used
binding material. Lime could also be used. When water is mixed with the cement, a paste is created that
coats the aggregates within the mix. The paste hardens, binds the aggregates, and forms a stone-like
substance.
Aggregates
Sand is a fine mixture. Gravel or crushed stone is the coarse mixture in most mixes.
Water
Water is required to with chemicals react with the cement (hydration) and to supply workability with
the concrete. The number of water combined in pounds compared with the number of cement is named
the water/cement quantitative relation.
Concrete admixture is defined as the material other than the aggregate, water and cement added to
improve the properties of concrete.
Concrete admixtures have various functions and they are as follows:
(a) To increase the rate of strength development at early ages – calcium chloride is the most widely
used accelerator,
(b) To retard the initial setting time while pumping concrete over a long distance,
(c) To increase the workability without changing the water content – pozzolana such as fly ash is used,
(d) To increase the strength,
Most engineering construction uses cement concrete composites as the main building material.
It consists of cement, sand, brick chips, or stone chips of the required size. The usual proportion is 1:2:4
or 1:3:6. After mixing the required amounts of concrete materials, the mix is cured with water for 28
days for proper strength building.
Cement concrete is a versatile construction material with a wide range of applications. It can be used in
structural applications such as beams, columns, slabs, and foundations. It can also be used in non-
structural applications such as paving, curbing, and landscaping. Cement concrete is also a popular
choice for precast applications such as pipes, paving stones, and sewer systems.
The main advantages of cement concrete are its strength, durability, and fire resistance. It is also
relatively low maintenance and can be easily repaired if damaged. However, cement concrete is a
relatively heavy material and can be difficult to work with. It is also susceptible to cracking and can be
damaged by extreme weather conditions.
For enhancing the tensile strength of concrete, steel reinforcements are added. The word 'Reinforced'
means 'strengthened' or 'supported'. Reinforced Cement Concrete, therefore, is a composite material
consisting of concrete and steel reinforcements.
The steel reinforcements used in RCC can be in the form of rods, bars, wires, meshes, etc. The concrete
is cast around these steel reinforcement bars or rods to form the desired shape. The steel reinforcement
bars are placed in such a way that they provide enough support to the concrete against the expected
loads.
The steel reinforcement bars are placed in such a way that they provide enough support to the concrete
against the expected loads.
STEEL
Concrete is strong against forces of compression and has low tensile strength and ductility.
Reinforcement materials are needed to withstand shear and tensile forces on the concrete. Steel is
particularly well suited as reinforcement because it bonds well to concrete and expands at the same
rate. When combined, steel and concrete form a new building material, reinforced concrete.
Steel reinforcement are steel bars that are provided in combination with plain cement concrete to make
it reinforced concrete. Hence these structures form steel reinforced cement concrete structure (R.C.C).
Steel reinforcement is commonly called as ‘rebars’.
Plain concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. Tensile property for concrete structures is
obtained by incorporating steel reinforcement. The steel reinforcement is strong in both tension and
compression. The tensile property provided by the steel reinforcement will prevent and minimize
concrete cracks under tension loads. The coefficient of thermal expansion of steel reinforcement and
concrete are similar in that they undergo similar expansions during temperature changes. This property
will ensure that the concrete is subjected to minimal stress during temperature variations. The surface
of the steel reinforcement bars is patterned to have a proper bond with the surrounding concrete
material. The two main factors that provide strength to the concrete structures are steel and concrete.
The design engineer will combine both the elements and design the structural element such a way that
the steel resists the induced tensile and shear force, while the concrete takes up the compressive forces.
The steel reinforcement used in concrete construction is mainly of 4 types. They are:
1. Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bars
2. Cold Worked Steel Bars
3. Mild Steel Plain Bars
4. Pre-stressing Steel Bars
1. Hot Rolled Deformed Bars
Hot rolled deformed bars are most commonly used steel reinforcement for R.C.C structures. As the
name says, the hot rolling of the reinforcement is undergone leaving certain deformations on its surface
in the form of ribs. These ribs help to form a bond with the concrete.
2. Cold Worked Steel Bars
A cold worked reinforcement bar is obtained by letting the hot rolled steel bars to undergo cold working.
In the cold working process, the bars will undergo twisting and drawing. The process is performed at
room temperature. The cold worked steel bars do not undergo a plastic yield thus have less ductility
when compared with hot rolled bars.
3. Mild Steel Plain Bars
The mild steel plain reinforcement bars do not have ribs on their surface. They have a plain surface.
These bars are used for small projects where the major concern is the economy. The tensile yield
strength of these bars has a value of 40000psi.
4. Pre-stressing Steel Bars
The pre-stressing steel reinforcement are steel bars used in the form of strands or tendons. Multiple
strands are employed in concrete in order to perform the pre-stressing action. The strands are made of
multiple wires either 2 or 3 or 7 wire strands. The wires used here are cold formed and have a high
tensile strength ranging from 250000 – 270000 psi. This high strength helps to effectively pre-stress the
concrete.
Advantages of Steel Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement is a reinforcing choice compared to other reinforcing materials due to its unique
advantages. They are:
1. Compatibility with Concrete: The fresh concrete is placed on the formwork mold already
prepared with reinforcement. The steel reinforcement won’t float in concrete during the
concrete placing procedure. Hence, steel reinforcement does not demand special tying up with
formworks.
2. Robustness of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars are robust in nature that they have the
ability to withstand the rigors, the wear and tear during the construction activities.
3. Bent Property of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars once manufactured to standard size, it
can be bent to the required specifications. Hence fabricated steel bars are delivered easily at the
site.
4. Recycling Property: The steel reinforced left over after the service life of a structure is recycled
again and used for new construction.
5. Easily Available: Every region of a country will have a steel supplier or manufacturer. Hence
steel reinforcement is easily available.
Disadvantages of Steel Reinforcement
The main disadvantages of steel reinforcement are mentioned below:
1. Reactive Nature of Steel Reinforcement: In concrete structures where the cover is small and
subjected to external moisture and salt action, the reinforcement undergoes reaction and starts
to corrode. These can lessen the strength of concrete and finally to failure.
2. Expensive: The cost of steel reinforcement in high. This will increase the cost of construction
3. Melts at high temperature: At higher temperatures, the steel reinforcement may melt. This is
the reason why the steel reinforcement are tied up and not welded.

INTRODUCTION TO PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Prefabricated Structure
Prefabricated structures are structures that are built-in pieces at the factory and assembled on the
construction site, prefabricated structures can be portable or non-portable (permanently fixed to the
foundation). Sometimes, the components are cast on the site itself and assembled. The method in which
various components of a construction structure such as linear members, rigid frames, roof, and floor
members are cast into the factory then moved to the location where they are assembled is called a
prefabricated structure. Structures constructed by the method of pre-fabrication and precast are called
prefabricated structures. Prefabricated structure can be easily transported, assembled and dismantled.
After dismantling, it is again moved to the required location, where it can be reassembled easily.
Methods of prefabricated structure:
1. Plant Pre-construction:
The process in which various precast concrete components are manufactured in the factory itself called
plant pre-fabrication. In-plant pre-fabrication, precast concrete components are manufactured under
precise quality control and each precast member is inspected and tested then transported to the site.
These members are operated by hoist and crane equipment, the site requires heavy transport fees to
carry a precast member.
2. Site Pre-construction:
When the process in which various precast concrete components are manufactured on site called site
pre-fabrication. It does not require any transportation fees to carry the precast member, but does
require lifting equipment to assemble the precast components. Laboratory testing for various materials
required for components and precast components cannot be performed in site pre-fabrication.
Components of prefabricated structure:

Linear Members
This includes members such as beams, lintels, columns, walls that are forecast for pre-construction
work.
Rigid Members
This includes R.C.C. Portal frames; these rigid frames are manufactured at the factory and then
transported to the required site. This is very difficult to transport a rigid frame to the site because the
overall size of the frame is high therefore desirable to construct a rigid frame on site.
Roofing and flooring members
The various roofing and floor members are prefabricated in the factory then transported to the place
where they are assembled.
RC Doors and Windows
Reinforced concrete doors and windows are prefabricated at the factory then transported to site for
installation.
Wall Panels
Various wall panels of desired size and shape are prefabricated then transported to the site where they
are assembled.
Advantages of Pre-fabricated Structures
1. Mass manufacturing of units:
Automation of the manufacturing process can save labor and reduce the price; designers can use units
of requirements and prepare entries for details.
2. The discount on prices and construction time on site:
Much less work to be accomplished on-site, saving the use of form work on the site. Precast units could
be erected in a dangerous climate.
3. Effective use of formwork:
Metal formwork is often used and increases the diversity of users up to 200 times. Precast units can be
formed so that they are self-stripping and impose labor exemption on molds.
4. Improved high quality of units:
Factory manufacturing under strict high-quality control. Prefabricated structure units could be carefully
checked after manufacture.
5. The particular shape and surface finishes:
Items can be cast in any place, similar to an upside-down on their sides and so on. Coloured concrete
could be produced by using white cement and colour pigment.
6. Demountable structures:
Bolted connections could be easily dismantled and re-erected in other places. No or little formwork is
required, false work will not be required.
Dis-Advantages of Pre-fabricated Structures
1. Cautious handling of prefabricated parts is required.
2. The strength and corrosion resistance of the prefabricated sections should be considered to
keep them away from joint failure.
3. Prefabricated parts might leak at the joints.
4. Transportation prices could also be higher for voluminous prefabricated sections
5. Massive prefabricated sections require heavy-duty cranes to place in position, exact
measurement, and handling.
6. A small variety of units required might prove to be uneconomical.
7. Particular connections, similar to special bearings to transmit vertical and horizontal loads can
add value to the system.

EXPECTED QUESTIONS
1. Enumerate the role of Civil Engineer in the society.
2. Discuss the scope of a) Structural Engg b) Geotechnical Engg c) Transportation Engg d) Water
resources Engg d) Environmental Engg
3. What is Building Planning? Explain the principles of building Planning.
4. Write a short note on Building construction.
5. Explain about the various materials used in construction. (Explain about Cement - Aggregate -
Bricks- Cement concrete- Steel)
6. Write a short note on Pre-fabricated structures.