WINDING FACTOR

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EMF EQUATION OF AN ALTERNATOR
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ARMATURE REACTION
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 When current flows through the armature winding of an alternator, the resulting mmf produces flux. The armature flux
reacts with the main pole flux, causing the resultant flux to become either less than or more than the original main field
flux.
 The effect of armature (stator) flux on the flux produced by the rotor field poles is called armature reaction.

Two Pole Alternator Positive Direction of Fluxes

 We are considering here a 3-phase, 2-pole alternator having a single layer winding. But this treatment is valid for any
number of poles. Also, the winding of each phase is assumed to be concentrated, but the effects of armature reaction will be
the same as if a distributed winding were used.

 The armature reaction in synchronous machines affects the main-field flux very differently for different power factors.

CASE 1: ARMATURE REACTION-UNITY POWER FACTOR

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 Rotor Position at ωt = 30o

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CASE 2: ARMATURE REACTION-LAGGING POWER FACTOR

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CASE 3: ARMATURE REACTION-LEADING POWER FACTOR

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EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT & PHASOR DIAGRAM OF
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
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 The actual voltage generated consists of the summation of two component voltages. One of these component voltages is
the voltage that would be generated if there were no armature reaction. It is the voltage that would be generated because
of only the field excitation. This component of the generated voltage is called the Excitation Voltage (Eexc).

 The other component of the generated voltage is known as the Armature Reaction Voltage (EAR). This is the voltage
that must be added to the excitation voltage to take care of the effect of armature reaction upon the generated voltage. The
equation for this can be given by:

 Since armature reaction results, in a voltage effect in a circuit caused by change in flux by current in the same circuit,
its effect is of the nature of an inductive reactance . Therefore EAR is equivalent to a voltage of inductive reactance
and

 The inductive reactance XAR is a fictious reactance which will result in a voltage in the armature circuit to account
for the effect of armature reaction upon the voltage relations of the armature circuit. Therefore, armature reaction
voltage can be modelled as an inductor in series with the internal generated voltage.

 In addition to the effects of armature reaction, the stator winding also has a self-inductance and resistance.
 Let, La is the self-inductance of the stator winding.
Xa is the self-inductive reactance of stator winding.
Ra is the armature stator resistance.

The terminal voltage V is given by the equation

 The armature reaction effects and the leakage flux effects on the machine are both represented by inductive reactance.
Therefore, all these combine to form a single reactance called Synchronous Reactance of the machine XS.
Hence,

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Hence we can define now Synchronous Reactance (XS) & Synchronous Impedance (Zs).

 Synchronous Reactance (XS): It is the imaginary or fictious reactance employed to account for the voltage effects
in the armature circuit produced by the actual armature leakage reactance and by the change in the air gap flux
caused by the armature reaction.
 Synchronous Impedance (Zs): It is a fictitious impedance employed to account for the voltage effects in the
armature circuit produced by the actual armature resistance, the actual armature leakage reactance and the change in
the air gap flux produced by the armature reaction.

(a) PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR LAGGING POWER FACTOR LOAD

(b) PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR UNITY POWER FACTOR LOAD

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(c) PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR LEADING POWER FACTOR LOAD

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 MEASUREMENT OF SYNCHRONOUS
IMPEDANCE
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 The measurement of synchronous impedance is done by the following tests:

1) DC resistance test
2) Open circuit test
3) Short circuit test

1) DC Resistance Test
In this test, it is assumed that the alternator is star connected with the DC field winding open as shown in the circuit
diagram below.

 It measures the DC resistance between each pair of terminals either by using an ammeter – voltmeter method or
by using the Wheatstone’s bridge.
 The average of three sets of resistance value Rt is taken. The value of Rt is divided by 2 to obtain a value of DC
resistance per phase.
 Since the effective AC resistance is larger than the DC resistance due to skin effect. Therefore, the effective AC
resistance per phase is obtained by multiplying the DC resistance by a factor 1.20 to 1.75 depending on the size
of the machine. A typical value to use in the calculation would be 1.25.

2) Open Circuit Test

 In the open circuit test for determining the synchronous impedance, the alternator is running at the rated
synchronous speed, and the load terminals are kept open. This means that the loads are disconnected, and the field
current is set to zero. The circuit diagram is shown below.

 After setting the field current to zero, the field current is gradually increased step by step.
 The terminal voltage Et is measured at each step. The excitation current may be increased to get 25% more than the
rated voltage.
 A graph is drawn between the open circuit phase voltage Ep = Et/√3 and the field current If. The curve so obtained
called Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C). The shape is same as normal magnetisation curve. The linear portion of
the O.C.C is extended to form an air gap line.
 The Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C) and the air gap line is shown in the figure below.

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 3) Short Circuit Test

In the short circuit test, the armature terminals are shorted through three ammeters as shown in the figure below.

 The field current should first be decreased to zero before starting the alternator. Each ammeter should have a range
greater than the rated full load value.
 The alternator is then run at synchronous speed. Same as in an open circuit test that the field current is increased
gradually in steps and the armature current is measured at each step.
 The field current is increased to get armature currents up to 150% of the rated value.
 The value of field current If and the average of three ammeter readings at each step is taken. A graph is plotted between
the armature current Ia and the field current If.
 The characteristic so obtained is called Short Circuit Characteristic (S.C.C). This characteristic is a straight line as
shown in the figure below.

Calculation of Synchronous Impedance

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Calculation of Synchronous Impedance

The following steps are given below for the calculation of the synchronous impedance.
1. The open circuit characteristics and the short circuit characteristic are drawn on the same curve.

2. Determine the value of short circuit current Isc which gives the rated alternator voltage per phase.

3. The synchronous impedance ZS will then be equal to the open circuit voltage divided by the short circuit
current at that field current which gives the rated EMF per phase.

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 VOLTAGE REGULATION
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 The Voltage Regulation of a Synchronous Generator is the rise in voltage at the terminals when the load is reduced
from full load rated value to zero, speed and field current remaining constant.
 It depends upon the power factor of the load.
 For unity and lagging power factors, there is always a voltage drop with the increase of load, but for a certain leading
power, the full load voltage regulation is zero.
 The voltage regulation is given by the equation shown below.

Determination of Voltage Regulation

 There are mainly two methods which are used to determine the regulation of voltage of a smooth cylindrical rotor
type alternators. They are:
 Direct load test
 Indirect methods

 The indirect method is further classified as:

1. Synchronous Impedance Method
2. Ampere-turn Method
3. Zero Power Factor Method.

Direct Load Test

 The alternator runs at synchronous speed, and its terminal voltage is adjusted to its rated value V.
 The load is varied until the Ammeter and Wattmeter indicate the rated values at the given power factor.
 The load is removed, and the speed and the field excitation are kept constant.
 The value of the open circuit and no load voltage is recorded.
 It is found from the percentage voltage regulation and is given by the equation shown below.

 The method of direct loading is suitable only for small alternators of the power rating less than 5 kVA.

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MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (MMF) METHOD
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ZPFC METHOD OR POTIER TRIANGLE
METHOD
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Tutorial Sheet 3
30 October 2020 11:15

3. A 3-phase 50 Hz, 8-pole alternator has a star connected winding with 120 slots and 8 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb,
sinusoidally distributed. Determine the phase & line voltages.

4. A 3-phase, 6-pole, star connected alternator revolves at 1000 rpm. The stator has 90 slots and 8 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is
0.05 Wb (sinusoidally distributed). Calculate the voltage generated by the machine if the winding factor is 0.96.

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5. A 3-phase, 16-pole synchronous generator has a resultant air gap flux of 0.06 Wb per pole. The flux is distributed sinusoidally over the
pole. The stator has 2 slots per pole per phase and 4 conductors per slot are accommodated in 2 layers. The coil span is 150o electrical.
Calculate the phase & line voltages when the machine runs at 375 rpm.

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6. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 2-pole, star connected turboalternator has 54 slots with 4 conductors per slot. The pitch of the coils is 2 slots less than the
pole pitch. If the machine gives 3300 V between lines on open circuit with sinusoidal flux distribution, determine the useful flux per pole.

7. A 4-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz, star-connected alternator has 60 slots, with 2 conductors per slot and having armature winding of the two layer
type. Coils are short-pitched in such a way that if one coil side lies in slot number 1, the other lies in slot number 13. Determine the useful
flux per pole required to generate a line voltage of 6000 V.

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Tutorial Sheet 4
30 October 2020 11:15

3. A 3-phase 50 Hz, 8-pole alternator has a star connected winding with 120 slots and 8 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb,
sinusoidally distributed. Determine the phase & line voltages.

4. A 3-phase, 6-pole, star connected alternator revolves at 1000 rpm. The stator has 90 slots and 8 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is
0.05 Wb (sinusoidally distributed). Calculate the voltage generated by the machine if the winding factor is 0.96.

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5. A 3-phase, 16-pole synchronous generator has a resultant air gap flux of 0.06 Wb per pole. The flux is distributed sinusoidally over the
pole. The stator has 2 slots per pole per phase and 4 conductors per slot are accommodated in 2 layers. The coil span is 150o electrical.
Calculate the phase & line voltages when the machine runs at 375 rpm.

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6. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 2-pole, star connected turboalternator has 54 slots with 4 conductors per slot. The pitch of the coils is 2 slots less than the
pole pitch. If the machine gives 3300 V between lines on open circuit with sinusoidal flux distribution, determine the useful flux per pole.

7. A 4-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz, star-connected alternator has 60 slots, with 2 conductors per slot and having armature winding of the two layer
type. Coils are short-pitched in such a way that if one coil side lies in slot number 1, the other lies in slot number 13. Determine the useful
flux per pole required to generate a line voltage of 6000 V.

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8. A 500 V, 50 kVA single-phase alternator has an effective armature resistance of 0.2 Ω. An excitation current of 10 A produces 200 A armature
current on short circuit and an emf of 450 V on open circuit. Calculate the synchronous reactance.

9. In a 3-phase, 1500 kVA, 50 Hz, 2300 V, star connected alternator, dc resistance measured across any two armature terminals is 0.16 Ω.
Assume effective resistance 1.5 times dc resistance. A field current of 70 A gave an armature current of 376 A during short circuit test and the
same field current gave 700 V during open circuit test. Calculate synchronous reactance and the voltage regulation at full load 0.8 power

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9. In a 3-phase, 1500 kVA, 50 Hz, 2300 V, star connected alternator, dc resistance measured across any two armature terminals is 0.16 Ω.
Assume effective resistance 1.5 times dc resistance. A field current of 70 A gave an armature current of 376 A during short circuit test and the
same field current gave 700 V during open circuit test. Calculate synchronous reactance and the voltage regulation at full load 0.8 power
factor lagging.

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10. A 3-phase, star connected alternator is rated at 1600 KVA, 13500 V. The armature effective resistance and synchronous reactance are 1.5
Ω ohm and 30 Ω respectively per phase. Calculate the percentage regulation for a load of 1280 KW at power factor of (a) 0.8 leading (b)
unity (c) 0.8 lagging.

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11. A 3-phase, star connected, round rotor synchronous generator rated at 10 kVA, 230 V has an armature resistance of 0.5 Ω per phase and a
synchronous reactance of 1.2 Ω per phase. Calculate the percent voltage regulation at full load at power factor of (a) 0.8 lagging (b) 0.8
leading (c) determine the power factor such that the voltage regulation is zero on full load.

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12. A 3-phase, 10 kVA, 400 V, 50 Hz star connected alternator supplies the rated load at 0.8 power factor lagging. If the armature resistance is
0.5 Ω and synchronous reactance is 10 Ω, find the torque angle and voltage regulation.

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13. A 3-phase, star connected, 1000 kVA, 2000 V, 50 Hz alternator gave the following open circuit & short circuit test readings:

Field Current A 10 20 25 30 40 50
OC Voltage V 800 1500 1760 2000 2350 2600
SC Armature Current A 200 250 300

The armature effective resistance per phase is 0.2 Ω. Draw the characteristics curves and determine the full load percentage regulation at (a) 0.8 power
factor lagging, (b) 0.8 power factor leading.

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14. A 5000 kVA, 6600 V, 3-phase, star-connected alternator has a resistance of 0.75 Ω per phase. Estimate by zero power factor method the
regulation for a load of 500 A at power factor (a) unity, (b) 0.9 leading, (c) 0.71 lagging, from the following open-circuit and full load, zero
power factor curves:
Field Current (A) Open-Circuit Saturation Curve,
terminal voltage (V) Zero p.f. (V)
32 3100 0
50 4900 1850
75 6600 4250
100 7500 5800
140 8300 7000

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