TIME

The West to East rotation of the Earth causes an apparent, opposite, East
to West rotation of the celestial sphere, so that heavenly bodies
continually cross an observer's meridian from East to West.

THE DAY
Is the interval in time between two successive meridian passages of a
heavenly body over the same meridian.
From the above general definition of the day, we derive various definitions
with reference to particular celestial bodies.

Sidereal Day
is the interval in time between two successive meridian passages of the
First point of Aries over the same meridian.

The sidereal day is the true rotational period of the Earth. It has a duration
of 23 hours, 56 minutes, 04.1 seconds of Mean Solar time.

The Sun makes an apparent revolution of 360° around the Earth in about
36514 days. With reference to the stars and the First point of Aries, the
Sun therefore appears to move eastwards by about 1° per day. From one
meridian passage of the Sun to the next, the Earth has to therefore rotate
approximately 361°. A solar day is therefore about 4 minutes longer than
a sidereal day. If measured using the sidereal day as the unit of time, the
Sun's meridian passage would occur about 4 minutes later each day. Since
life on the Earth is governed by the Sun, itis essential to choose a unit of
time that is closely related to the Sun, so that the Sun crosses the
observer's meridian at about the same time each day, throughout the
year. Therefore, the sidereal day is not used as a unit for measurement of
time in civil life, though it is the true rotational period of the Earth and is
of constant duration.

Аpрarent solar day

is the interval in time between two successive transits of the True Sun,
across the same meridian.
The apparent solar day is not of constant duration. The variation in the
duration of the apparent solar day is caused due to
(a) the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit and
(b) the obliquity of the Ecliptic.

To complete an apparent solar day, the Earth has to rotate 360° with
respect to the Sun. From fig. 8.1 it can be seen that the rotation necessary
to complete an apparent solar day will be 360° + the angular orbital
motion of the Earth during the day. The rate of angular motion of the Earth

102
in its orbit is not constant, but is larger at perihelion and smaller at
aphelion.

IMG

To complete an apparent solar day, the Earth would therefore have to

rotate 360° + a larger angle at perihelion and 360° + a smaller angle at
aphelion. The length of the apparent solar day is therefore larger at
perihelion and smaller at aphelion, due to the Earth's eccentric orbit.

Even if the orbit of the Earth was circular, with the Sun at its centre, so
that the rate of the angular orbital velocity of the Earth remains constant,
there would still be a variation in the duration of the apparent solar day,
caused due to the obliquity of the Ecliptic.

To understand this, let us assume that the Sun moves at a uniform

apparent velocity on the Ecliptic. There would still be a non-uniform rate
of increase of the Sun's RA (which is measured on the Equinoctial) due to
the plane of the Ecliptic being inclined to that of the Equinoctial. At the
equinoxes the Sun's track along the Ecliptic is at an angle of 23½ to the
Equinoctial. A day's motion of the Sun on the Ecliptic, projected on the
Equinoctial, would intercept a smaller arc on the Equinoctial than on the
Ecliptic. At the solstices however, the Ecliptic and the Equinoctial are
almost parallel to one another. A day's motion of the Sun on the Ecliptic
when projected on the Equinoctial then, would intercept almost the same
arc on the Equinoctial as on the Ecliptic.

IMG

103
To complete an apparent solar day, the Earth has to rotate 360° + the
apparent angular eastward motion of the Sun during the day, (measured
along the Equinoctial). As explained above, this angle is larger at the
solstices and smaller at the equinoxes. The length of the apparent solar
day would therefore be greater at the solstices and lesser at the
equinoxes, due to the obliquity of the Ecliptic.

Thus, as a unit of time, the apparent solar day suffers from the serious
disadvantage of not being of constant duration. If we measure time, using
the apparent solar day as the unit, it would be necessary to have clocks
showing 24 hours of different durations through the year. We cannot
therefore, use the apparent solar day based on the True Sun, for
measurement of time. Instead, we use an imaginary body called the Mean
Sun, to measure time.

The Mean Sum

is an imaginary body assumed to move along the Equinoctial at a uniform

rate, equal to the average rate of motion of the True Sun on the Ecliptic.

As can be seen from the definition, this imaginary body does not suffer
from either of the two disadvantages of the True Sun, with respect to
measurement oftime, as it moves along the Equinoctial, and at a uniform
rate. It should also be noted that the SHA's of the Mean Sun and True Sun
would never be very different at any time through the year and that both
these bodies complete one apparent revolution round the Earth in exactly
the same time, i.e. one year.

Mean Solar day

is the interval in time between two successive meridian passages of the
Mean Sun across the same meridian.
It is of constant duration, equal to 24 hours of Mean Solar time .

MEAN, APPARENT & SIDEREAL TIMES

Local Mean Time or Ship's Mean Time

(LMT or SMT) is the westerly hour angle of the Mean Sun measured from
the observer's inferior meridian. The observer's inferior or anti-meridian is
the meridian 180° away from his own meridian.

Greenwich Mean Time

(GMT) is the westerly hour angle of the Mean Sun measured from the
inferior meridian of Greenwich.

104
 IMG

Local Apparent Time or Apparent Time Ship

(LAT or ATS) is the westerly hour angle of the True Sun measured from the
observer's inferior meridian.

Greenwich Apparent Time

(GAT) is the westerly hour angle of the True Sun measured from the
inferior meridian of Greenwich.

(LST) is the westerly hour angle of the First Point of Aries measured from
observer's meridian.

(GST) is the westerly hour angle of the First point of Aries measured from
the Greenwich meridian.

Sidereal time is measured from the meridian itself, while solar time,
whether mean or apparent, is measured from the inferior meridian. By
measuring solar time from the inferior meridian, we start with zero hours
when the Sun is on the inferior meridian. Thus, a day starts at midnight. If
solar time was measured from the meridian, the day would start at noon.
The morning would then be one date and the afternoon the next date.

It has already been explained that a sidereal day is equal to 23 hours 56

minutes 04.1 seconds of Mean solar time. Thus, the sidereal clock would
gain about 3 minutes 56 seconds over a solar clock, each day.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LONGITUDE AND TIME

105
The Mean Sun completes an apparent revolution of 360° with respect to a
stationary point on the Earth, in 24 hours of mean solar time. The rate of
motion of the Mean Sun is therefore uniformly 15° per hour or 1° in 4
minutes; that is 15' of arc in one minute of time, corresponding to 1' of arc
in 4 seconds of time. Units of time may therefore be used as a measure of
arc and vice versa.

IMG

Referring to the above figure, it may be seen that the difference in the
Local times at two different places on the Earth is equal to the angle
subtended at the Pole between the inferior meridians of the two places,
which is equal to the difference in longitude between them. This is a very
important relationship. When using this relationship, the times being
compared should both be LMTs or both LATs or both sidereal times.

By comparing the time at any place with the Greenwich time, we can
therefore obtain the longitude of that place. Since time is a westward
measurement, the time at places in East longitudes will be more than
Greenwich time at that instant and the time at places in West longitudes
will be less than Greenwich time at that instant, at the rate of one hour for
every 15° of longitude. We can also find the local time in any longitude by
adding to the Greenwich time the longitude converted to hours, in East
longitudes, and subtracting that from Greenwich time in West longitudes.

106
STANDARD TIME

It is impracticable for each place on the Earth to measure time from its
own inferior meridian. If this was done, each state, city and locality would
maintain different local times, making civil life difficult. Nor is it
convenient for all places on the Earth to measure time from one standard
meridian. I fall places on the Earth maintained time measured from the
inferior meridian of Greenwich, for instance, places near the 180th
meridian would have zero hours at noon. To obviate this difficulty, a
system of standard times has been adopted by all countries of the world.
The continents of the Earth are divided into several areas and each area
keeps time, based on a somewhat central meridian through that area.
Each of these areas is referred to as a 'Time Zone'.

The meridians on which the standard times of the various time zones are
based are chosen so that the times based on them would differ from G MT
by a convenient number of hours. For instance, Indian standard time used
throughout India is based on 82%°East meridian, which differs from
Greenwich time by 5½ hours of time. Generally, an entire country has one
standard time. Certain countries with a large east-west extent, like USA
and Australia use different standard times over different areas. The
standard time kept by the various countries are listed in the nautical
almanac and in the Admiralty list of Radio signals Vol. II.

If the standard time of a country is 2 hrs behind GMT, it is listed as +2

hours, indicating that 2 hours are to be added to the standard time of that
country to obtain G MT. Indian Standard Time is listed as - 5 hours 30
minutes.

ZONE TIME

Under the Zone time system, sometimes used by ships, when at sea, the
Earth is divided into 24 zones, each zone being 15° of longitude in width.
Ships in each of these zones, keep time based on the central meridian
through that zone. Zone zero extends from 7½°E to 7½°W longitude. The
central meridian of this zone being the Greenwich meridian, ships within
this zone keep GMT. Zone + 1 covers the area from 7/2°W to 22½°W. The
time kept within this zone is based on the central meridian of this zone i.e.
15°W. Ships within this zone would have their clocks one hour behind
GMT. Ships within zone (+) 2 covering the area from 22½°W to 37%°W
keep time based on the central meridian 30°W i.e. 2 hours behind GMT.
Similarly ships between 22½°E and 37%°E would be in - 2 zone keeping
time, based on the 30° East meridian i.e.2 hours ahead of GMT. Thus, in
addition to the zero zone, we have 12 zones with negative prefix and 12
zones with positive prefix. Zone 12 extending from 172½°E to 172½°W
with the 180th meridian as its central meridian would obviously have both

107
+ve and-ve prefixes. Zone +12 extends from 172%°W to 180°, and zone -
12 from 172%°E to 180°. It should be noted that the zone time at any
position will always differ from GMT by a full number of hours, because the
central meridians used for measurement of zone time in the different
zones, always differs from Greenwich meridian by multiples of 15°. A ship
crossing the limiting longitude of a zone, would therefore advance or
retard her clocks by one hour, at that instant.

To find the Zone Time, kept at any longitude, an easy method is to divide
that longitude by 15°. The quotient converted to its nearest whole number
would be the zone of that place. This should be added to or subtracted
from the GMT depending on the longitude being East or West respectively,
to obtain the zone time at that longitude. The difference between Time
zones explained earlier and Zone Time explained above should be noted
and clearly understood.

Examples

1. Find the Zone time in longitude 50° West at 0700 LMТ.

To Calculate the Zone LMT

0700
50°W/15=3.33 LIT(W)
0320
Zone=+3 GMT
1020
Zone difference
0300
Zone time
0720

2. Find the Indian standard time in longitude 85°E, at 1100 hours Zone
time.

To calculate the Zone time

1100
85°E/15=5.67 Zone diff.
0600
Zone =-6 GMT
0500
Time zone of India
0530
IST
1030

INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

108
From what has been stated earlier, it will be realized that as a ship
proceeds eastwards, she would have to advance her clocks at the rate of
one hour for every 15° of d'long, and a ship proceeding westwards would
have to retard her clocks at the rate of one hour for every 15° of d'long, if
their clocks are to indicate the correct LMT.

Consider a ship circum-navigating the Earth in a westward direction,

making a d'long of 12° per day. She would return to her original meridian
in 360°/12° =30 days. During this period, she would have retarded her
clocks by 1 hour for every 15° of d'long i.e. a total of 360/15° = 24 hours,
or one day. By her calendar, she would therefore have returned to her
original meridian in 29 days. If she had circumnavigated the Earth in an
eastward direction, she would have advanced her clocks by 24 hours or
one day and would return to the original meridian in 31 days according to
her calendar. Thus, compared to the date at a shore station, on the
original meridian, the date of the ship which sailed westwards would be
one day behind and the date of ship which sailed eastwards would be one
day ahead. To obviate this anomalous situation, the Date line has been
introduced by international agreement. The Date line roughly corresponds
to the 180th meridian. It deviates from this meridian so that islands in the
same group and continuous land areas fall on the same side of the Date
line. Ships crossing the Date line, on an easterly course retard their date
by one day, while ships crossing the Date line on a westerly course
advance the date by one day.

WHY STARS RISE, CULMINATE AND SET 4

MINUTES EARLIER EACH DAY

IMG

109
With reference to Fig. 8.7, when the Earth is at position E, in its orbit, if the
Sun is in transit with the First point of Aries, the Sun and First point of
Aries would culminate at the same time. Thereafter during the period, the
Earth completes one rotation of360° on its axis, it moves to position E, in
its orbit. This motion of the Earth does not alter the direction to the First
point of Aries, as it is at an infinite distance from the Earth. Thus, on
completion of a rotation of 360°, the First point of Aries will once again
culminate i.e. a sidereal day is completed. However, the motion of the
Earth in its orbit, does make a difference in the direction to the Sun. Since
the Earth completes a revolution of 360° around the Sun in about 365
days, the average daily angular motion of the Earth around the Sun is
360°/3654= approximately 0°59'.

To complete a solar day therefore the Earth has to rotate 360° +59'. Thus
the solar day is about 3m 56s longer than the sidereal day.

Since we measure time by the Sun, our clocks show 24 hours from one
culmination of the Sun to the next. Measured by our clocks, therefore, the
First point of Aries, and in fact all-stars, would appear to culminate every
23h 56m 04s, that is about 4 [Link] each day, than they did the
previous day. Stars therefore rise and set also about 4 minutes earlier
each day.
We have seen that 24 hours of sidereal time is equal to 23h 56m 04s of
Mean solar time. Using this relationship, we can convert durations in
terms of sidereal time to those in terms of solar time and vice a versa.

To complete a solar day, the Earth has to rotate 360°+360°/3651½. Thus,

per day the Earth rotates 360°/ 3651¼ in excess of one rotation. In one
year therefore, the Earth would make 360°/3654x3654=360° or one
rotation in excess of 36514 rotations. Thus, in one year, the Earth makes
366 rotations with respect to a fixed direction in space, say the First point
of Aries. In one year of 3654 solar days therefore, there are 366/ sidereal
days.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ARC AND TIME

As explained earlier
15° of arc = 1 hour of time
1° of arc = 60m/15=4 minutes
15' of arc = 4/1x 15/60=1 minute
1' of arc = 60/15 seconds = 4 seconds
.25' of arc = 1 second

Conversion tables are provided in nautical tables, and in the nautical

almanac to facilitate converting time to arc or arc to time without actual
calculations.

110
Examples

1. Convert 107°37' to time, without the use of the tables and verify the
result using the conversion tables.

15) 107° 37' (7h.)

105
----
2
× 60
----
120
+ 37
----
15) 157 (10m.)

150
----
7
× 60
----
15) 420 (28s.)

300
----
120
120
----
0

= 7h 10m 28s

2. Convert 9h 23m 14s to arc, without use of tables and verify the result
using the conversion tables.

09h × 15° = 135°

23m × 15' = 345' ÷ 60 = 05°45'

14s × 15" = 210" ÷ 60 = 03'30"

111
 ----------------
140°48'30"

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LONGITUDE AND TIME

GMT~LMT or GAT ~LAT=long. in time (LIT)

Greenwich time (Best) Longitude West
Greenwich time (Least) Longitude East
Conversely, Local time (-) East LIT=Greenwich time
Conversely, Local time (+) West LIT=Greenwich time

Examples

1. Find the GMT, when LMT in long.125°30’E was 5d 03h 15m 04s.

LMT 5d 03h 15m 04s

LIT(E) 08h 22m 00s
GMT 4d 18h 53m 04s

2. Find the LAT in long.86°34’ West, when GAT was 5d 3h 04m 06s.

GAT 5d 03h 04m 06s

LIT(W) 05h 46m 16s
LAT 4d 21h 17m 50s

3. On 12th December, at 07h 33m 15s, GMT, the SMT at a place was
02h 45m 30s on the same date. Find the long. of that place.

GMT 12d 07h 33m 15s

SMT 12d 02h 45m 30s
LIT 04h 47m 45s

Converted to arc, Longitude = 71°56.25’ West,

as Greenwich time is greater.

4. Find the SMT at a place in longitude 88°E, at 0600 Zone time.

To find the zone : 88°E ÷ 15 = 5 × 13/15

The place is situated in Zone -6

Zone time 0600

112
 Zone 0600
GMT 0000
LIT 0552
SMT 05h 52m
5. Find the LMT at a place in longitude 66°W, the Time Zone of which is
+ 04h 00m, at 18h 40m standard time.

Standard time 18h 40m

Standard time diff. 04h 00m
GMT 22h 40m
LIT(W) 04h 24m
LMT 18h 16m

6. A vessel sailed from longitude 173°E, at 14h 12m LMT on 15th July.
She arrived in longitude 167° West at 04h 35m LMT on the 16th.
Find the steaming time.
In such problems involving comparison of times in different longitudes,
it is advisable to convert both the times to Greenwich times. The
duration or interval can then be obtained by comparing the Greenwich
times. Since Greenwich times are being compared finally, we do not
have to concern ourselves with the ship's date having been adjusted on
crossing the date line.

LMT Dep. 15d 14h 12m 00s

LIT(E) 11h 32m 00s
GMT Dep. 15d 02h 40m 00s .... (i)
LMT Arr. 16d 04h 35m 00s
LIT(W) (+) 11h 08m 00s
GMT Arr. 16d 15h 43m 00s .... (ii)
-15d 02h 40m 00s
Steaming time 1d 13h 03m 00s

In the calculations on time which follow, knowledge of conversion from

one time to another, as well as arcs to time and vice a versa, will be
assumed. The reader must make himself proficient in the above
relationships before proceeding to them.

Further examples on Time

1. Star Regulus crossed the observer’s meridian, at 2030 hrs LMT on a

certain day. At what approximate LMT will it cross the observer’s
meridian 3 days later ?

As a star culminates approximately 4 minutes earlier each day,

it will cross the observer’s meridian 4 × 3 = 12 minutes earlier
i.e. at 2018 LMT.

113
2. On a certain day, the Moon and a star culminated together.
What will be approximate interval of time between their
culminations next day ?

Since the star approximately 4 minutes earlier, and the Moon

approximately 50 minutes later each day, the interval between their
culmination will be approximately 54 minutes, the next day.

3. Convert 9h 30m of Mean Solar time to interval of Sidereal time.

Assume length of a sidereal day to be 23h 56m of Mean Solar time.

23h 56m of Mean solar time = 24h of sidereal time

(1436m) (1440m)

9h 30m (MST) = (1440 × 570) / 1436 = 571.588m sidereal time

(570m) = 9h 31m 35s of sidereal time.

4. Convert 4h 16m 12s of sidereal time into interval of Mean Solar time.

24 hours of sidereal time = 23h 56m of Mean solar time

4h 16m 12s sidereal time = 1436m / 1440m × 4h 16m 12s
= 4h 15m 29s of Mean Solar time

5. A sidereal clock and a solar clock show the same time. After
15h 36m of solar time, what will be the difference between the
times on the two clocks?

In 23h 56m of solar time, the sidereal clock gains 3m 56s

In 15h 36m of solar time it would gain

(15h 36m) / (23h 56m) × 3m 56s = 2m 34s

The sidereal clock will be ahead by 2m 34s

6. At 0600 hrs. GMT on 13th October, 1976, find

(i) the Greenwich sidereal time
(ii) the local sidereal time in longitude 170°W

GMT 0600, GHA γ = 111°55.6'

G. sidereal time = 7h 27m 42s

LIT (W) = 11h 20m 00s

114
 Local sidereal time = 20h 07m 42s
EQUATION OF TIME

Apparent time and Mean time have been defined as the time measured to
the meridian of the True Sun and the time measured to the meridian of
the Mean Sun respectively. Equation of time is the difference between the
Mean time and the Apparent time, measured from the same meridian, at
any instant. Itis expressed in minutes and seconds of time. Navigators
generally express Equation of time as Mean time minus Apparent time,
though astronomers express it as Apparent time minus Mean time. In
conformity with the practice in nautical text books, equation of time will
be expressed as Mean time minus Apparent time in this book. Therefore, if
Mean time is greater than Apparent time, equation of time is +ve and if
Apparent time is greater than Mean time, equation of time is-ve.

From the above, it will be noted that equation of time is not a

mathematical equation, but is an interval of time. In arc, equation of time
is equal to the angle between the meridian of the Mean Sun and that of
True Sun.

Since time is a westward measurement and as Greenwich and sidereal

hour angles are also measured westwards, equation of time may also be
considered as GHAMS - GHATS or LHAMS - LHATS or SHAMS-SHATS,
expressed in minutes and seconds of time. Each of the above expressions
would give the angle between the meridian of the Mean Sun and that of
the True Sun. We may also obtain the equation of time as RATS - RAMS.
(True - Mean, in this case, as RA is an eastward measurement).

he Mean Sun moves at a uniform rate along the Equinoctial, while the True
Sun moves at a varying rate along the Ecliptic. However, both the Suns
complete an apparent revolution in exactly the same period (one year).
The angle between their meridians at any instant is therefore never very
large. In fact, the value of equation of time, never exceeds 16m 22s,
corresponding to an angle of 4°05.5' between the meridians of the True
Sun and Mean Sun. Equation of Time values are tabulated in the daily
pages of the nautical almanac, for 00 hrs. and 12 hrs GMT on each day.
The value for any intermediate time may be obtained by interpolation.
The values tabulated in the almanac are the absolute values i.e. signs are
omitted. Whether it is positive or negative may however be determined by
inspecting the meridian passage time of the Sun in the adjacent column of
the almanac. If the tabulated meridian passage time is in excess of 12
hours, say 12 04, it indicates that at 12 04 Mean time, the True Sun is on
the meridian i.e. the Apparent time is 1200. Equation of Time is then
obviously +ve. Conversely, if the tabulated meridian passage is less than
12 hours, equation of time is -ve. In fact, we can obtain the value of
equation of time, correct to the nearest minute, by inspection of the
tabulated meridian passage time of the Sun. Meridian passage time - 12
hrs. =Equation of time (correct to the nearest minute).

115
1. Find the equation of time, at 1830 hours GMT on 13th October,
1976.

Equation of time

13th 12hrs 13m 48s -ve

14th 00hrs 13m 55s -ve

By interpolation, equation of time at 1830 on the 13th

= 13m 52s -ve

2. Find the equation of time at 1500 hrs. GMT when the GHA of the
Sun was 42°04.7'.

When GHATS = 42°04.7', its westerly hour angle from the inferior
meridian of Greenwich will be 180° + 42°04.7' = 222°04.7'

GAT = 14h 48m 19s

Equation of time = GMT − GAT
15 00 00
14 48 19
= + 11m 41s

IMG

116
3. On October 14th, 1976, in longitude 120°E, find the LMT when
LAT was 7h 12m 40s.

LAT 14d 7h 12m 40s

LIT(E) 8h 00m 00s
GAT 13d 23h 12m 40s

*Equation of time -13m 54s

GMT 13d 22h 58m 46s

LIT(E) 8h 00m 00s
LMT 14d 06h 58m 46s

*Though equation of time is tabulated for GMT, we interpolated for its

value using GAT, as GMT was not available. This is acceptable as GMT and
GAT differ, only by the amount of equation of time, which as stated earlier,
is never large.

Further theory on equation of time

We know that equation of time, is the difference between Mean time and
Apparent time, that is, the angle between the meridians of the Mean and
True Suns. There are two causes for their meridians differing.
(i) The True Sun moves at a varying rate on its elliptical apparent orbit
around the Earth, while, by definition, the Mean Sun moves at a uniform
rate along the Equinoctial.
(ii) The apparent orbit of the True Sun is inclined at about 23½° to the
Equinoctial along which the Mean Sun moves.

Equation of time may therefore be considered as composed of two

components:

(a) Component E₁, produced due to the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit,
and
(b) Component E₂, produced due to the obliquity of the Ecliptic.

To discuss these two components of equation of time, it is necessary to

introduce another body called the Dynamical Mean Sun. This is an
imaginary body assumed to move along the Ecliptic at a uniform rate,
equal to the rate of motion of the Mean Sun on the Equinoctial. When the
True Sun is at perigee, its meridian is assumed coincident with that of the
Dynamical Mean Sun.

117
We may now compare the movement of the Dynamical Mean Sun with
that of the True Sun, both of which move in the same plane. The
difference between their meridians at any time (RATS -RADMS) gives the
component E, of equation of time then. We may also compare the
movement of the Dynamical Mean Sun with that of the Mean Sun, both of
which move at the same uniform rate, to obtain the component E, of
equation of time, as (RADMS-RAMS). The algebraic Sum of E, and E₂ would
then give RATS-RAMS, which is the equation of time-

RATS - RADMS = E1
+ RADMS - RAMS = E2
---------------------------- -------------------
RATS - RAMS = Equation of time

In Fig 8.9., T, D and M represent the True Sun, the Dynamical Mean Sun
and the Mean Sun respectively. Their meridians are also shown. RA, being
an eastward measurement from the First point of Aries along the
Equinoctial, γD, γM and γT are the RAs of the Dynamical Mean Sun, Sun
and True Sun respectively. In the figure component E₁, which is RATS −
RA_DMS is +ve, component E₂, which is RA_DMS − RAMS is −ve and
Equation of time which is RATS − RAMS is +ve.

Let us first consider the component E, which is RATS - RADMS. Both True
Sun and Dynamical Mean Sun complete one revolution in exactly the
same period i.e. one year. True Sun will traverse the two symmetrical
halves of the orbit (from perigee to apogee and from apogee to perigee in
exactly equal periods i.e. a half year. [Link] Sun moving at a
uniform rate will also traverse each half year of its orbit in half a year).

IMP

118
By definition, the meridians of the Dynamical Mean Sun and the True Sun
coincide at perigee. E, is then nil. From perigee, the True Sun moves at a
varying rate in its elliptical orbit while the Dynamical Mean Sun moves at
a uniform rate along the Ecliptic. Being near perigee, the rate of motion of
the True Sun is greatest. Its RA therefore increases faster than that of
Dynamical Mean Sun. Thus E, will be +ve till they reach apogee, when
their meridians once again coincide. Their RAs then become equal, and E,
again becomes nil. At apogee the rate of motion of True Sun is least, while
Dynamical Mean Sun continues moving at the same uniform rate. RADMS
then increases faster than RATS. Thus, from apogee, RADMS will be
greater than RATS, and E, will be -ve till they reach perigee again. E, is
thus nil at perigee, in early January and at apogee, in early July. It is +ve
for the first half of the year, with a maximum value of about 7 minutes in
early April and-ve for the second half of the year, with the same maximum
value occurring in early October.

Let us now consider the component E₂ which is RADMS -RAMS. Dynamical

Mean Sun and Mean Sun are coincident at the First point of Aries (Vernal
equinox 21st March). E₂ is then nil. After a certain interval of time, they
would have moved through the same arc on their respective tracks,
because their rates of motion are the same. But their meridians will not be
coincident, as Dynamical Mean Sun is on the Ecliptic, while Mean Sun is on
the Equinoctial. Since RA is measured along the Equinoctial, RADMS will
be less than RAMS, and E₂ will be-ve. At Summer solstice (June 21st), they
have both travelled 90° on their respective great circle tracks, i.e. arrived
at E₁ and Q, respectively, in fig. 8.9. They are then on the same meridian
and E₂ is again nil. For the next quarter of the orbit RADMS is greater than
RAMS and E₂ is then +ve. They would arrive together at the First point of
Libra, at Autumnal equinox, on 23rd September, since they would both
have travelled 180° in their respective tracks. E₂ is again nil then. For the
next quarter of the orbit RADMS is again less than RAMS, and E₂ is -ve. At
winter solstice, on 22nd December, when they have both travelled 270°
from the First point of Aries on their respective tracks i.e. arrived at E and
Q respectively their meridians again coincide and E₂ is nil then. For the
next quarter of the orbit, till they return to the First point of Aries, RADMS
is greater than RAMS and E₂, is +ve. Thus, E₂ is nil at the equinoxes and
solstices. It has maximum +ve and -ve values of about 10 minutes,
midway between each equinox and solstice.

The values of E₁ and E₂ may be plotted for the entire year as shown in
figure 8.10

119
 IMG

We may then obtain a curve of equation of time for the entire year, as the
algebraic sum of the two component curves. It may be noted from the
curve of equation of time that its value varies throughout the year and
that it attains zero value on four occasions during the year i.e. mid April,
mid June, early September and end of December. The maxima are +14m
21s, about mid February, -3m 45 s, about mid May + 6m 22s, about end
July and - 16m 22s in early November.

Examples

1. On a certain day, the LMT meridian passage of Sun is tabulated as

11h 56m. What is the approximate value and sign of equation of time?

At meridian passage LAT 1200

LMT 1156
Equation of time = -4m

2. If equation of time is +6m, what is the LMT of the Sun’s meridian

passage?

LAT 1200
Equation of time +06
LMT 1206

3. At 1300 hrs. GMT when equation of time is -8m. What is the Sun’s
GHA?

At GMT 1300 hrs. GHAMS = 15°

Equation of time : 8m = 2°
GHATS G = 17°

120
 IMG

4. Find the LAT in longitude 80°E (Standard time zone -5h 30m) at
1000 hrs. standard time, when equation of time is -4m.

Standard time 10h 00m

Time zone -5h 30m
GMT 4h 30m
LIT 5h 20m
LMT 9h 50m
Equation of time 0h 04m
LAT 09h 54m

5. Find the GMT, when LAT in longitude 46°30’ West is 17h 28m,
if equation of time is +7m 15s.

LAT 17h 28m

Equation of time + 7m 15s
LMT 17h 35m 15s
LIT(W) 3h 06m 00s
GMT 20h 41m 15s

6. At a place in 150°36’E (Time zone -10) the Standard time of the

Sun’s meridian passage was 12h 02m 04s. Find the equation of time.

Standard time of meridian passage 12h 02m 04s

Time zone (-)10h 00m 00s
GMT 02h 02m 04s
LIT 10h 02m 24s
LMT, meridian passage 12h 04m 28s
LAT, meridian passage 12h 00m 00s
Equation of time +04m 28s

7. Find the observer’s longitude, if GHAS was 40° and LHAS was
280°.

121
 IMG

Longitude: 120°W.

8. Given GHAS 110°, GHA γ 240°, equation of time +4m 16s.

Find RAMS and SHAMS. (FIG. 8.13)

GHAS 110°
GHA γ 240°
RA Sun 130°
Equation of time (+) -1°04'
RAMS 128°56'
SHAM = 360° − 128°56' = 231°04'

9. At 16h 40m 30s GMT, RAMS was 13h 40m 20s and the longitude
of a star’s geographical position was 40°15’E. Find the SHA
of the star.

SHAMS = 360° − RAMS= 360° − 205°05'= 154°55.0'

GHAMS = GMT − 12h= 250°7.5' − 180°= 70°07.5'
SHA of Greenwich meridian= SHAMS − GHAMS= 84°47.5'
Long. of GP of * = 40°15.0'E
SHA* = 44°32.5'

IMG

122
10. For an observer, in longitude 6°30’E, a star whose SHA was 276°15'
was on the meridian at 07h 16m 12s GMT. Find SHAMS.

Angle GPMS = 12h - GMT = 180° - 109°03'

= 70°57'
Angle GPO = 6°30'
Angle OPMS (EHAMS) = 64°27'
SHAMS = SHA - Angle OPMS = 276°15' - 64°27' = 211°48'
(fig. 8.15)

UNIVERSAL TIME (U.T)

Mean solar time is based on the Mean Solar Day which is derived from the
rotation of the Earth. Due to small variations in the rate of Earth's rotation,
Mean Solar time and the (mean solar) second are not accurate enough for
precise measurement of time and intervals, particularly for the present-
day scientific needs. It is therefore necessary to make allowances for the
small irregularities involved in measurement of time in terms of Mean
Solar Time.

UT₀
In the concept of Universal Time, the Mean Solar Time at Greenwich, i.e.
GMT is designated U.T.₀ (Universal time as observed). This is based on the
rotation of the Earth and is measured by timing the meridian transits of
selected stars, the celestial co-ordinates of which are accurately known.
When a star transits the observers meridian, the local sidereal time is
equal to the stars R.A. By applying the Mean Sun's SHA± 12 hrs, to the
local sidereal time, the LMT at that instant can then be obtained. Such
observations are made on the Greenwich meridian and other
observatories. The Greenwich time, so observed provides U.T.₀.

UT₁
Since measurement of time and longitude are essentially inseparable,
accurate fixing of longitude requires a time scale which allows precisely
for any irregularities in the measurement of time. One cause of such
irregularity in measurement of U.T.₀ is the polar variation, caused due to
the small wandering of the Earth's poles on the surface of the Earth. The
poles appear to be describing approximately circles of diameter about
40m. A change in the position of the poles changes the plane of the
Equator and those of the meridians. It, therefore introduces a variation in
the time. This variation has a maximum value of±30 milli seconds.

123
U.T.₀. corrected for polar variation is designated U.T.₁. For an accurate
calculation of longitude, U.T.₁ should be used instead of U.T.₀. though the
very small difference that exists between U.T.₀ and U.T.₁ will not produce
any sensible difference in the result. Theoretically therefore, it is U.T.₁ time
signals which the navigator requires to correlate time, hour angles and
longitude.

Since U.T₁ is based on the rate of rotation of the Earth, it does not provide
a uniform timescale because of the variations in the rate of rotation of the
Earth. There is a small secular retardation in the rate of the Earth's
rotation in 100 years. This is probably caused due to tidal friction. Apart
from the above, there are more significant variation in the rate of rotation
of the Earth. These include an irregular variation due to internal
disturbances in the Earth and a periodic (seasonal) variation due to
meteorological effects on the Earth's atmosphere, causing the rate of
rotation to increase slightly during summer and decrease slightly during
autumn and winter. The amplitude of this variation is up to ±30
milliseconds. Although this variation follows the same general pattern
annually, neither the amplitude nor the phase of the variation repeats
exactly. U.T₂ is obtained by removing the effect of the seasonal variation
from U.T₁.

The mean solar second was defined as (1/24) × 60 × 60 of a mean solar

day. Due to the variations in the rate of rotation of the Earth, the second
was redefined in 1956 in the terms of the orbital motion of the Earth,
because of the necessity for much higher precision in scientific work. The
second was then defined as 1 / 31556925.9747 of the tropical year 1900.
Time so defined is called Ephemeris time. Astronomical determination of
U.T. and E.T. is a lengthy process as errors and irregularities have to be
smoothed out over long periods - several years, in the case of E.T.

Co-ordinated Universal Time (U.T.C.): is a time scale based on the

fundamental property of the atom. It has no relationship to observed
astronomical events. The atom of the isotope of Cesium 133 can exist at
two energy levels, or hyperfine levels of ground state. Its transition from
one state to the other is accompanied by the emission or absorption of
electromagnetic energy at a characteristic frequency. This frequency has
been measured as 9,192,631,770 ± 20 cycles per second of Ephemeris
time. In the atomic time scale, the second is therefore defined as
equivalent to the period for 9,192,631,770 vibrations of the unperturbed
hyperfine transition 4, 0-3, 0 of fundamental state 2s½ in C₁₃₃. The atomic
second was internationally accepted in 1964. Several investigations
thereafter have shown that the atomic second and ET second agree to a
degree much beyond what was originally anticipated.

Atomic Time was introduced on 1st Jan. 1972 and was designated Co-
ordinated Universal Time (U.T.C.).

124
The Atomic clock measures time intervals only and not the time of day as
U.T. does. It merely provides a running total of seconds by summating the
cycles of radiation. We may however measure atomic time from a zero
specified in terms of an astronomical event. The error in an atomic clock is
expected to be within 1 second in 5000 years. The atomic second has
been adopted only temporarily, as further developments like the hydrogen
maser gives promise of time accuracies of the order of 1 sec. in 33 million
years.

Since U.T.C. is a uniform and accurate time scale, U.T₁, based on the
rotation of the Earth, which is subject to irregularities, will differ from
U.T.C. by small variable amounts. U.T₁ is required by navigators,
astronomers, satellite tracking stations, for survey work etc. U.T.C. is re-
quired for precise measurement of time intervals in scientific work. It is
also used in navigational systems like the GPS, Loran C etc.

Primary time signals are disseminated in accordance with U.T.C. The value
of U.T₁ - U.T.C. in integral multiples of 0.1 sec. is also disseminated by
code in the primary time signals. The correction, algebraically added to
U.T.C. gives U.T₁. At present, the divergence between U.T.C. and U.T₁
is about 1 sec. annually. It is therefore necessary to make periodic
adjustments to U.T.C. to ensure that it does not differ much from U.T₁,
due to the accumulation of the divergence of long periods. It has been
internationally agreed that the necessary corrections to U.T.C. will be
made in steps of 1 sec. such that the difference between the two never
exceeds 0.7 sec. Navigators therefore need not worry unduly if U.T.C. is
used in place of U.T₁, for calculating positions at sea as the error in the
calculated position is not likely to exceed acceptable limits within the
parameters of accuracy attainable at sea.

A step correction of 1 sec. is called a leap second. A positive or a negative

leap second will be the last second of the U.T.C. month (31st Dec. and/or
30th June), 23h 59m 60s being followed by 00h 00m 00s or 23h 59m
58s being followed by 00h 00m 00s, as necessary.

An examination of the Earth as a time keeper since 1825 indicates that an

average of one step adjustment per year, as at present, should suffice. In
the early part of this century however, there was a period when more than
one step adjustment would have been necessary.

PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES

Precession of the equinoxes can be better comprehended if the property

of precession exhibited by free gyroscopes is first understood.

A free gyroscope consists of a heavy, well-balanced wheel, rotating at a

fast rate on frictionless bearings and having three degrees of freedom i.e.
freedom to rotate about its spin axis, freedom to move the spin axis in
azimuth and freedom to move the spin axis in altitude. Due to its property

125
of precession, if a torque is applied on one end of the spin axis of a free
gyroscope, the axis does not move in the direction of the applied torque.
Instead, it moves in a direction 90° away, as though the torque had been
rotated through 90° in the direction of rotation of the wheel. For example,
if the spin axis of a gyroscope was lying horizontal, in the North South
direction and the wheel was spinning clockwise as viewed from the South
end, as shown in Fig. 8.16, a down-ward torque applied on the South end,
would cause that end to precess westwards.

IMG

The Earth satisfies all the conditions for a free gyroscope, since it is heavy,
well balanced, rotating at a fast rate, it has no friction against its rotation,
and it has all the three degrees of freedom. It will therefore exhibit the
gyroscopic property of precession, if a torque is applied to its spin axis.

The gravitational forces between heavenly bodies is directly proportional

to their masses. As stated earlier, the Earth is not a true sphere. It is
flattened at the poles and bulging at the Equator. Because of the spheroid
shape of the Earth, there is larger concentration of the Earth's mass at the
equatorial zone than at the polar regions. The gravitational attraction of
the heavenly bodies on the Earth is therefore greatest at the equatorial
zone.

126
 IMG

The Earth's Equator is in the plane of the Equinoctial. The plane of the
Ecliptic is inclined at 23½ to that of the Equinoctial. The poles of the
Earth, projected on the celestial sphere i.e. the celestial poles are
therefore 23½ away from the poles of the Ecliptic. The Sun is always on
the Ecliptic. The gravitational force of the Sun on the Earth, which is
greatest at the equatorial zone, is therefore in a direction tending to align
the plane of the Equator with that of the Ecliptic. This is equivalent to a
torque being applied to the spin axis of the Earth in a direction tending to
align its poles with the poles of the Ecliptic. But due to the 125 Earth's
gyroscopic property of precession, its axis moves in a direction 90° away
from the direction to the pole of the Ecliptic. As the pole of the Earth
moves from its original position, the direction of the torque towards the
pole of the Ecliptic also changes. As the direction of the torque changes
continually, the direction of movement of the Earth's poles also
continually changes. In effect, therefore, the pole of the Earth and
therefore the celestial pole will describe a small circle of radius 23%°
around the pole of the Ecliptic in a clock wise (westward) direction.

IMG

127
The Moon's orbit is inclined at about 514 to the plane of the Ecliptic. The
mean position of the Moon may however be considered as being on the
Ecliptic. The effect of the Moon's gravitational force on the Earth is
therefore similar to that of the Sun. The combined effect of the two bodies
together is termed "Luni Solar Precession”.

As the direction of the Earth's axis changes due to precession, the plane of
the Equator, and therefore the plane of the Equinoctial shifts in sympathy
(refer figure 8.18.). Since the plane of the Ecliptic is unchanged, the
change in the plane of the Equinoctial causes the points at which the
Equinoctial intersects the Ecliptic to shift westward along the Ecliptic.

The slow westward motion of the Equinoctial points (First point of Aries
and First Point of Libra) along the Ecliptic by about 50.2" of arc each year
is termed as Precession of the Equinoxes. A full cycle of precession
occupies about 25,800 years.

The direction of the Earth's axis at present is less than 1° from the
direction to Polaris. In about 13,000 years, the Earth's axis would have
precessed to a direction about 47° away from Polaris. It will then be
pointing in a direction within 5° of Vega. Vega would then probably be
used as the Pole star.

Also due to precession, the First point of Aries, is now no longer in the
constellation of Aries. It has precessed into the constellation of Pisces. The
signs of the zodiac, therefore no longer correspond to the constellations
after which they were named.

Effects of Precession 1. As the First point of Aries moves to the

westward, at an average rate of 50.2" of arc
each year, the RA of fixed bodies like stars,
increase by a corresponding amount, yearly.

2. As the plane of the Equinoctial changes

gradually, there is a corresponding change in
the declination of stars, as declinations are
measured N or S from the Equinoctial.

3. Due to precession the Tropical year is about

20 minutes shorter than a sidereal year.

The value of precession is not uniform

throughout the year, nor is its annual value
constant.

NUTATION

128
 The reason for the uneven rate of precession mentioned above is the
change in direction of the gravitational force of the Sun and the Moon on
the Earth, due to the change in their declinations. Under the topic, Earth
Moon system, the 18.6 year cycle of movement of the Moon's nodes along
the Ecliptic was described. Due to the motion of the Moon's nodes, the
maximum declination of the Moon varies from a maximum value of about
283% to a minimum value of about 184°. This periodic variation in the
value of the Moon's maximum declination causes the rate of precession to
increase and decrease in an 18.6 year cycle. In addition, it also causes the
Earth's axis to move inwards and outwards of the circle it would have
described due to precession alone. This nodding of the Earth's axis as it
moves around the pole of the Ecliptic is known as Nutation. The axis of the
Earth therefore traces a wavy curve instead of describing a circle. The
period of each wave is 18.6 years. (FIG. 8.19)

IMG

Effects of Nutation 1. It makes the increase in RA of stars due to

precession, uneven.
2. It produces a very small variation in the
obliquity of the Ecliptic and also in the
declination of stars.

THE YEARS

Sidereal year is the interval in time between two successive

coincidences of the True Sun's centre with a fixed
direction in space. In other words, it is the time
taken by the Earth to complete one revolution of
360° around the Sun. It is equal to 365.2564 Mean

129
 solar days.
Tropical year is the interval in time between two successive
coincidences of the True Sun's centre with the First
point of Aries i.e. the period between two
successive vernal equinoxes. It is equal to
365.2422 Mean solar days. It is shorter than the
sidereal year by 0.0142 mean solar days or about
20 minutes of time. This difference is caused due
to precession of the equinoxes. If the First point of
Aries was fixed, the Sidereal and Tropical years
would have been of the same length: As explained
earlier, due to precession of the equinoxes, the
First point of Aries, has a westward motion of
about 50" each year along the Ecliptic. Since the
Sun's orbital motion is east wards, it would return
to the First point of Aries on completing
359°59'10"of orbital motion, and not 360° as for
completion of a Sidereal year. (FIG. 8.20)

IMG

Anomalistic year is the interval in time between two successive

coincidences of the True Sun's centre with the point
of perigee in its apparent orbit. It is equal to
365.2596 Mean solar days. Since the point of perigee
moves eastwards, by about 11" of arc annually, the
Anomalistic year is about 5 minutes longer than the
sidereal year.
Civil year Since the seasons recur at the interval of a Tropical
year, that period would be the obvious choice as a
civil year, because life on Earth is governed by
seasons. It is also necessary that the calendar year
should contain a full number of days. In an effort to
combine these two requirements, Julius Caesar

130
 introduced the Julian calendar consisting of 3 civil
years of 365 days each, followed by a 4th civil year
of 366 days called a leap year.

For convenience, the years chosen to be leap years

are the ones which are divisible by 4. Thus,
according to the Julian calendar, the average length
of the civil year, was exactly 365.25 Mean solar
days. This is 0.0078 Mean solar days or about 11
minutes longer than the Tropical year. The slow
accumulation of this difference over many years,
would have put the calendar dates out of step with
the seasons.

To allow for this, Pope Gregory XIII amended the

Julian calendar in 1582. In the Gregorian calendar, 3
leap years of the Julian calendar are omitted in every
400 years. The leap years omitted are the century
years in which the number of centuries are not
divisible by 4. For example, 1700, 1800, 1900 and
2000 would have been leap years according to the
Julian calendar. According to the Gregorian calendar,
of these, only the year 2000 remains a leap year.
Thus in 400 years, we now have 97 leap years and
303 years of 365 days. This makes the average
length of the Civil Year equal to 365.2425 Mean solar
days, which is very nearly equal to the length of
Tropical year.

Exercise VIII 1. What will be the LHA of a star 6 hours after it

was on the meridian of a stationary observer?

2. On a certain day, at 0900 hrs, GMT, the Sun's

GHA was 3 16°25'. Calculate the value of
equation of time.

3. Given GHA Aries 300°50.8', SHAMS 132°10', LAT

in long. 58°45'W, 13h 06m 12s. Find the value
of equation of time.

4. Using the nautical almanac, find SHAMS and

SHATS at 0735 GMТ on 14th October, 1976.

5. A vessel sailed from 170°10'W, at apparent

noon on 14th October, 1976. She arrived in
longitude170°05'E at LMT 14h 12m on 17th
October, 1976. Find her steaming time.

131
 6. On 14th October, 1976, find the equation of
time at 14h 30m GMT without using the
tabulated values of equation of time.

7. On 14th Oct.1976, find the LMT, at 1134 LAT in

long.72°12'W.

8. At 16h 40m 30s GMT, RAMS was 12h 40m 40s.

Find the SHA of a star whose GHA then was
40°05'.

9. Find the LAT when LHATS was 30°15'. If the

observer's longitude was 15°15'E, what was the
GAT?

10. A vessel left port at 0910 GMT on a

certain day. She steamed 445 miles till apparent
noon the next day and was in long. 22°12'W. Ifat
1400 hrs GMT on that day, the Sun's GHA was
34°08', find her steaming time and average
speed.

11. Express 8h 48m 28s of Mean solar time in

sidereal time.

12. At 22h 08m 07s GMT, long. of the GP of a

star was 24°32'W. If RAMS at that instant was
05h 46m 03s, find the star's RA.

13. At 04h 01m 30s GMT, to an observer, the

Sun's LHA was 311°30.1. If equation of time was
+11m 30s, find the observer's longitude.

14. At 04h 01m 30s GMT, to an observer, the

Sun's LHA was 311°30.1. If equation of time was
+11m 30s, find the observer's longitude.

15. 15. On a certain date, in longitude 15°W,

LHA Sun was 320°, when GHA y was 271°. Find
the Sun's SHA.

Harder Problems 1. Star Aldeberan (SHА 291°21.6') was on the

observer's meridian, when the observer's sidereal
clock showed 4h 30m. Find the error of the clock. If
the Sun was on the meridian at 13h 12m 10s by the
same clock, find the Sun's SHA.
SHA* = 291°21.6′
RA* = 68°38.4′

132
 Correct
sidereal time = 4h 34m 33.6s
Time by clock = 4h 30m 00.0s
Error of clock = 4m 33.6s slow

Time of Sun’s
meridian passage
by [Link] = 13h 12m 10s
Error = 4m 33.6s
slow

Correct sidereal time = 13h 16m 43.6s

SHA Sun = RA Sun

= 10h 43m 16.4s

IMG

2. Find the True Sun's SHA at the instant when the

First point of Aries crossed 60° East longitude, if on
that day, GHA Sun was 62°47.2', when GHA Aries
was 264°12'.
GHA γ 264° 12.0′
GHA Sun 62° 47.2′
RA Sun 201° 24.8′
SHA Sun 158° 35.2′

IMG

133
 As the Earth turns from West to East, both Aries
and Sun appear to move westwards, Aries at the
rate of 15°02.46' per hour and Sun at the rate 15°
per hour.

For Aries to come to 60°E, it has to move through

35°47.2'.

From increment tables for Aries in the nautical

almanac, itis found that for GHA y to increase
35°47.2', it takes 2 hours 22m 45 seconds. For the
same period, it is found from the Sun's increment
tables that its GHA would increase by 35°41.3'.
Aries therefore closes up on the Sun by: (35°47.2'-
35°41.3') = 5.9'
Initial SHA of Sun 158°35.2'
Reduction 5.9'
SHA Sun when Aries is on 60°E = 158°29.3'

3. If at 1600 hrs. GMT, GHA γ was 357°12.2′, find the

GMT at which a star with SHA of 335°13′ will have
an LHA of 53°12′ in longitude 074°50′E.

Longitude of observer = 074° 50′

LHA * = 53° 12′
Greenwich EHA * = 21° 38′
SHA * = 335° 13′
SHA Greenwich = 356° 51′
GHA γ = 03° 09′
GHA γ at 1600 GMT = 357° 12.2′
Increase in GHA = 5° 56.8′

From increment table for Aries in almanac,

for 5°56.8′, we get 23m 43s & hence
GMT = 16h 23m 43s.

IMG

134
4. The Greenwich sidereal time of culmination of a
star was 11h 14m 50s on October 14, 1976. What
was the LMT then for an observer in longitude
162°12′ West?

Greenwich sidereal time = 11h 14m 50s

GHA γ = 168° 42.5′
From nautical almanac, on 14th October
GMT 14d 09h 42m 35s
LIT -10h 48m 48s
LMT 13d 22h 53m 47s

5. At what time GMT and on what date in 1976, will

two clocks one keeping GMT and the other
GST, show the same?

GMT is measured westwards from the inferior

meridian of Greenwich, to the Mean Sun. GST is
measured westwards from the Greenwich meridian
to Aries. Since the two times are measured from
meridians 180° apart, for the times to be equal, the
points to which they are measured (MS and y)
respectively, should also be 180° apart i.e. GHAY
and GHAMS, should differ by 180° or MS should be
at Libra.

IMG

We know that the True Sun is at Libra on 23rd

September. Since the meridians of TS and MS differ
only by the amount of the equation of time (which

135
 is never large),MS will also be at Libra on or about
23rd September.

Inspecting the nautical almanac, about that date,

we should find the time when their GHAs differ by
exactly 180°. When that occurs, the two clocks will
show the same time as explained earlier.

GHAMS
GHAγ Diff.

On 21st Sept. 0000 hrs GMT 180° 359°59.8′

179°59.8′
On 22nd Sept. 0000 hrs GMT 180° 000°58.9′
180°58.9′
-------- --------
24 hrs
0°59.1′

In 24 hours, the difference in GHA between MS and

γ has changed by 59.1′. To change 0.2′ it would
take (0.2′ × 24) ÷ 59.1 = 0.081 hrs = 4.9 m.
The two clocks will show exactly the same time at
00h 04.9m GMT on 21st September.

6. Calculate the equation of time, if the Sun rose at

0507 LMT and set at 1858 LMT at a certain position.
Hence show the effect of equation of time on the
lengths of the forenoon and afternoon. Assume the
Sun's declination remained unchanged between
sun-rise and sun-set.

LMT sun set 18h 58m 00s

LMT sunrise 05h 07m 00s
Length of ‘day 13h 51m 00s
1/2 length of day 06h 55m 30s
LMT sunrise 05h 07m 00s
LMT meridian passage 12h 02m 30s
LAT meridian passage 12h 00m 00s
Equation of time +02m 30s

Because the equation of time is +ve, Mean noon

occurs earlier than apparent noon. Since Mean
noon separates forenoon and afternoon, the
forenoon will be shorter than afternoon. The effect
will be opposite, if equation of time was -ve.

7. On a certain day, for a stationary observer, LMT

sun rise was 06h 52m. The Sun’s meridian passage

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 occurred at 1151 LMT. Find LAT of sun set.

LMT meridian passage 11

51
LMT sunrise
06 52
Duration of morning 04
59
Duration of afternoon will also be 04 59
LAT meridian passage 12
00
LAT sun set
16 59

8. On 14th October, 1976 a vessel left Madras, lat.

13°06'N, Long. 080°18.0'E (Time zone - 5.30) at
1730 hrs, GMT and steered 048°(T), at 18 knots.
Find the alteration to her clocks necessary so that
they would show 12 00 hrs, at apparent noon, the
next day.

Departure Madras GMT 14d 17h 30m 00s

GHA Sun 86°01.3′
Long. of Madras (E) 80°18.0′
----------
LHA Sun 166°19.3′
360°00.0′

Angular separation between

Sun & ship on departure 193°40.7′
N48°E, 18M, dep = 13.38M d’long 13.73′
The Sun moves westward 15°/hour
The ship moves eastward 0°13.73′/hour
They approach each other at 15°13.73′/hour

IMG

At apparent noon, the ship and the Sun are on the

same meridian. Steaming time till apparent noon
next day
= 193°40.7'/15°13.73'= 12h 43m 04s

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 Departure GMT 17
30
00
Time Zone -5
30
Departure IST 23
00
00

Time shown by clock: -

Steaming time
+12 43 04
Time shown by clock at apparent noon next day
35 43 04

=11 43 04
The clock should show
12 00 00
Alteration necessary 16m 56s to advance

9. On a certain day, the Greenwich transit of Aries

was 11h 32m GMT. At what time LMT on the same
day did star Betelguese (SHA 271°31') transit the
meridian of 124° East.

SHA Betelgeuse 271°31′

Longitude (East) 124°00′
-----------
IMG
395°31′
-360°
-----------
LHA of 035°31′
Betelgeuse

The star is 35°31' past the meridian of 124°E.

The rate of apparent motion of star = 15°2.46/hour
(as for Aries).
Time interval after star transitted 124° East
(From increment table for Aries) 2h 21m
42s
Present GMT 11h
32m 00s
GMT of transit of star
over 124°East 9h
10m 18s
LIT
8h 16m 00s

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 LMT transit of star 17h
26m 18s

10. On 14th October, 1976 in longitude 32°W the LHA

of star Rigel was 44°12'. Find the GAT at that
instant.

LHA * = GHAγ + SHA * - Long (W)

GHAγ = LHA * + Long (W) - SHA *
LHA * = 44°12′
Long (W) = 32°00′
-------------------
GHA * = 76°12′ (+360°)
(-) SHA * 281°38.4′
GHAγ 154°33.6′

GMT for GHAγ of 154°33.6′ = 14d 08h 46m

06s
GHA of True Sun for this GMT = 315° 02′
- 180° 00′
LHA of True Sun from -----------------
inferior meridian of Greenwich 135° 02'
GAT = 14d
09h 00m 08s

11. A star with SHA of 252°20' had an LHA of 212°45'

in longitude 124°40'W. If RAMS then was 17h 06m
12s, find the GMT at that instant.
SHA *
252°20′
LHA *
IMG 212°45′
EHAγ
39°35′
Long (W)
124°40′
GHAγ
85°05′
SHAMS = 360° - RAMS =
103°27′
GHAMS
188°32′

-180°00′

8°32′
GMT 00h
34m 08s

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 12. For an observer at Greenwich, the GMT transit of
Aries, was 00h 34m 12s. Equation of time+4m
15s. If at that instant, a total eclipse of the Moon
occurred, find the Moon's RA. Also find the Moon's
declination then, if the Sun's declination was
IMG 2°30'S.

As explained under the topic ‘eclipse’, for a

lunar eclipse to occur, the GHAs of the True Sun
and the Moon should differ by 180° and their
declinations should be equal in amount and
opposite in names.
GMT = 00h 34m 12s
Eqn of time (+) 4m 15s
GAT 00h 29m 57s
GHA Moon = 00h 29m 57s
RA Moon 23h 30m 03s
Since Sun’s declination is 2°30′S, Moon’s
declination =2°30′N

Theory Questions 1. Define 'Sidereal day', 'Apparent solar day'

and 'Mean Solar day'.
2. Give the reasons for the variation in the
duration of the apparent solar day.
3. Define 'Mean Sun', 'Dynamical Mean Sun',
'Local Mean Time', 'Greenwich apparent
time' and 'Local sidereal time’.
4. Explain the terms Standard time and
Zone time.
5. What is the International 'Date line'? Why
is it necessary and how is the date on a
ship crossing the International Date line
on an easterly course affected?
6. Define 'equation of time' and explain the
two components of 'equation of time.'
7. Explain how 'equation of time' becomes
nil four times in the year. State the
approximate dates on which it is nil.
8. What do you understand by the term
'Precession of the equinoxes' and what
are its effects?
9. Discuss Nutation and its effects.
10. What are Sidereal year, Tropical
year and Anomalistic year? Why are they
not of the same length?
11. Discuss the calendar in use at

140
 present.
12. Explain why a 'sidereal day' is about
4 minutes shorter than a 'solar day'.
13. What effect has the 'equation of
time' on the length of 'fore- noon' and
'after-noon'?
14. Why does a star appear to rise,
culminate and set 4 minutes earlier each
day.
15. With the aid of figures, show the
following relationships.
(1) GMT ~ LMT = Long
(2) GHA* + Long.E = LHA*
(3) GHAγ + SHA* - Long.W = LHA*
(4) GHAγ - GHAMS = RAMS
(5) LHA* + RA* = RA of observer’s
meridian

141