UNIT-5: Battery and Storage Systems

Essay-1: Energy Storage Parameters

Introduction
Energy storage systems are essential in electric vehicles because they store electrical energy
and supply it to the motor when required. The performance of an energy storage system is
evaluated using several parameters such as energy density, power density, efficiency,
cycle life, state of charge and state of health.

1. Energy Density
Energy density represents the amount of energy stored per unit mass or volume.
Energy Stored
Energy Density=
Mass
Unit:Wh /kg
Higher energy density means the vehicle can travel longer distances with less battery
weight.
Example:
Lithium-ion batteries have higher energy density than lead-acid batteries.

2. Power Density
Power density represents how quickly energy can be delivered from the storage device.
Power
Power Density=
Mass
Unit:W /kg
High power density is required for:
 Rapid acceleration
 High torque demand
Ultracapacitors have very high power density.

3. Efficiency
Efficiency indicates how much energy can be recovered from the stored energy.
Energy Output
η= × 100
Energy Input
Higher efficiency reduces energy losses and improves vehicle performance.
Typical efficiencies:
 Batteries: 80–95%
 Ultracapacitors: 95–98%

4. State of Charge (SOC)

SOC indicates the remaining capacity of a battery.
Remaining Capacity
SOC= ×100
Total Capacity
SOC helps determine:
 Remaining driving range
 Battery charging requirement

5. State of Health (SOH)

SOH represents the condition of the battery compared to its original capacity.
 Current Capacity
SOH = ×100
Rated Capacity
If SOH decreases, battery performance deteriorates.

6. Cycle Life
Cycle life refers to the number of charge and discharge cycles a battery can perform before
its capacity drops to about 80%.
Typical values:
Battery Cycle Life
Lead Acid 300–500 cycles
Lithium- 1000–3000
ion cycles

7. Self-Discharge Rate
Self-discharge occurs when stored energy is gradually lost even when the battery is not used.
Lower self-discharge rate improves battery storage performance.
Conclusion
Energy storage parameters such as energy density, power density, efficiency, SOC, SOH
and cycle life are important for evaluating and selecting suitable energy storage systems for
electric vehicles

Essay-2: Lead-Acid Battery – Construction, Working, Advantages and

Disadvantages (12 Marks)
1. Introduction
Lead-acid battery is one of the oldest and widely used rechargeable electrochemical energy
storage devices. It was invented by Gaston Planté in 1859.
Lead-acid batteries are commonly used in:
 Electric scooters
 Electric vehicles (early EVs)
 Automotive starter batteries
 Backup power systems
They are popular because they are low cost, reliable, and easy to manufacture.

2. Construction of Lead-Acid Battery

A lead-acid battery mainly consists of the following components.
1. Positive Plate
Material:
Pb O2
(Lead dioxide)
Function:
 Acts as the positive electrode
 Participates in electrochemical reaction

2. Negative Plate
Material:
Pb
(Pure lead)
Function:
 Acts as the negative electrode

3. Electrolyte
Electrolyte used:
H2 S O4
(Sulphuric acid)
Function:
 Conducts ions between plates
 Participates in chemical reaction

4. Separator
Separators are placed between plates to:
 Prevent short circuit
 Allow ion flow
Materials used:
 Rubber
 Glass fiber
 Plastic

5. Container
Container holds all components and electrolyte.
Materials:
 Hard rubber
 Polypropylene plastic
3. Working Principle of Lead-Acid Battery
The lead-acid battery works based on electrochemical reactions between lead plates and
sulphuric acid electrolyte.
It has two processes:
1. Discharging process
2. Charging process

4. Discharging Process
During discharge, the battery supplies electrical energy to the load.
Chemical reaction:
Pb O2+ Pb+2 H 2 S O 4 → 2 PbS O 4 +2 H 2 O
Explanation:
 Lead dioxide and lead react with sulphuric acid
 Lead sulphate is formed on both plates
 Water is produced
 Electrical energy is delivered to the load
Result:
 Voltage gradually decreases
 Acid concentration reduces

5. Charging Process
During charging, external electrical energy restores the battery.
Reverse chemical reaction:
2 PbSO 4 +2 H 2 O → Pb O2+ Pb+ 2 H 2 S O4
Explanation:
 Lead sulphate converts back to lead dioxide and lead
 Sulphuric acid concentration increases
 Energy is stored again

6. Voltage of Lead-Acid Battery

The voltage of a single lead-acid cell is approximately: 2 V
For example:
Batte Volta
ry ge
6 cells 12 V
12
24 V
cells

7. Advantages of Lead-Acid Battery

1. Low cost
2. Simple technology
3. High reliability
4. High surge current capability
5. Easy recycling
These advantages make it suitable for low-cost EV applications.
8. Disadvantages of Lead-Acid Battery
1. Low energy density
2. Heavy weight
3. Short cycle life
4. Slow charging
5. Environmental concerns due to lead

9. Applications in Electric Vehicles

Lead-acid batteries are used in:
 Electric scooters
 Electric bicycles
 Golf carts
 Small EVs
However, modern EVs increasingly use lithium-ion batteries due to higher energy density.

10. Conclusion
Lead-acid batteries are widely used energy storage devices in electric vehicles due to their low
cost and reliability. They operate through electrochemical reactions between lead plates and
sulphuric acid electrolyte. Despite their advantages, their low energy density and heavy weight
limit their use in modern high-performance electric vehicles.

Essay-3: Ultracapacitors (Supercapacitors) – Construction, Working, Advantages and

Applications (12 Marks)
1. Introduction
Ultracapacitors, also called supercapacitors, are energy storage devices that store electrical
energy using electrostatic charge instead of chemical reactions.
They are used in electric vehicles to support:
 Rapid acceleration
 Regenerative braking
 High power demand
Ultracapacitors have very high power density but lower energy density compared to
batteries.
2. Construction of Ultracapacitor
An ultracapacitor consists of the following main components.
1. Electrodes
Electrodes are made of porous carbon material which provides a very large surface area for
charge storage.
Function:
 Stores electric charge on the surface.

2. Electrolyte
Electrolyte contains ions that move between electrodes.
Types of electrolytes:
 Aqueous electrolyte
 Organic electrolyte

3. Separator
Separator is placed between electrodes.
Function:
 Prevents short circuit
 Allows ion movement

4. Current Collectors
These are conductive plates that collect electrical current from the electrodes.

3. Working Principle of Ultracapacitors

Ultracapacitors work based on the electric double-layer effect.
When voltage is applied:
1. Positive and negative charges accumulate on electrode surfaces.
2. Opposite ions in electrolyte gather near the electrode.
3. Energy is stored as electrostatic charge.
Unlike batteries, no chemical reaction occurs, so charging and discharging is very fast.

4. Energy Stored in Ultracapacitor

Energy stored in a capacitor is given by:
1 2
E= C V
2
Where:
 E = stored energy
 C = capacitance
 V = voltage
This equation shows that energy increases with square of voltage.

5. Power Delivered by Ultracapacitor

Power capability depends on current and voltage.
P=VI
Where:
 P= power
  V = voltage
 I = current
Because of very low internal resistance, ultracapacitors can deliver very high power quickly.

6. Advantages of Ultracapacitors
1. Very high power density
2. Extremely fast charging and discharging
3. Long cycle life (more than 1 million cycles)
4. High efficiency (95–98%)
5. Wide operating temperature range

7. Disadvantages of Ultracapacitors
1. Low energy density compared to batteries
2. Higher cost
3. Higher self-discharge rate
Because of these limitations, ultracapacitors are usually used together with batteries.

8. Applications in Electric Vehicles

Ultracapacitors are used in EVs for:
 Regenerative braking energy storage
 Power assistance during acceleration
 Hybrid energy storage systems
 Stabilizing voltage fluctuations
They improve vehicle efficiency and battery life.

9. Comparison Between Batteries and Ultracapacitors

Batter Ultracapaci
Parameter
y tor
Energy
High Low
density
Power Mediu
Very high
density m
Charging
Slow Very fast
time
Limite
Cycle life Very long
d
80–
Efficiency 95–98%
90%

1. Definition of Flywheel
A flywheel is a heavy rotating mechanical device used to store energy in the form of kinetic
energy.
It absorbs energy when supply is high and releases energy when supply is low, thereby
maintaining uniform speed of a machine.
Example:
 Internal combustion engines
  Punch presses
 Rolling mills
 Power presses

2. Need of Flywheel
In many machines, the torque produced is not constant during a cycle.
This causes speed fluctuations. A flywheel helps by:
 Storing excess energy when torque is high
 Releasing energy when torque is low
 Maintaining nearly constant angular velocity

3. Energy Stored in a Flywheel

Energy stored in a rotating flywheel is kinetic energy.
Formula:
1 2
E= I ω
2
Where:
 E = kinetic energy stored (Joules)
 I = mass moment of inertia (kg·m²)
 ω = angular velocity (rad/s)

4. Energy Change in Flywheel

During operation, speed varies between:
 Maximum speed ω 1
 Minimum speed ω 2
Energy change:
1 2 2
Δ E= I (ω1 −ω2 )
2
This represents the energy stored or released by the flywheel.

5. Coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed

It measures the variation in speed of a flywheel.
Formula:
N 1−N 2
C s=
N
Where:
 N 1= maximum speed
 N 2= minimum speed
 N = mean speed

6. Functions of Flywheel
1. Stores rotational energy.
2. Maintains uniform machine speed.
3. Reduces speed fluctuations.
4. Supplies extra energy during heavy load periods.

7. Applications of Flywheel
  Automobile engines
 Punching machines
 Rolling mills
 Power presses
 Reciprocating engines
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
1. Definition
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) is a system that stores electrical
energy in the magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in a
superconducting coil.
The coil is kept at very low temperature so that it becomes superconducting (zero
electrical resistance).
Because there is no resistance, the current can circulate without energy loss.

2. Principle of SMES
When current flows through a superconducting coil, a magnetic field is created.
Energy is stored in this magnetic field.
Stored energy formula:
1 2
E= L I
2
Where:
 E = Stored energy (Joules)
 L = Inductance of the coil (Henry)
 I = Current through the coil (Ampere)

3. Main Components of SMES

1. Superconducting Coil
Stores energy in magnetic form.
2. Cryogenic Cooling System
Keeps the coil at extremely low temperature (using liquid helium or nitrogen).
3. Power Conditioning System
Converts AC ↔ DC for charging and discharging.
4. Control System
Controls energy storage and release.

4. Working of SMES
1. Electrical energy is converted to DC.
2. DC current flows through the superconducting coil.
3. Energy is stored in the magnetic field.
4. When needed, stored energy is released back to the grid.

5. Advantages
 Very high efficiency (≈95%)
 Instant energy response
 No moving parts
 Long life

6. Disadvantages
  Very high cost
 Requires extremely low temperature
 Complex cooling system

7. Applications
 Power system stability
 Voltage support
 Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
 Renewable energy grid support
Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage (PHES)
1. Definition
Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage is a method of storing electrical energy by pumping
water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir during low electricity demand, and
releasing it back through turbines to generate electricity during high demand.
It is one of the most widely used large-scale energy storage technologies.

2. Basic Principle
It works on the principle of gravitational potential energy.
 When electricity demand is low, excess power is used to pump water upward.
 When demand is high, water flows downward through turbines to generate electricity.
Stored energy formula:
E=mgh
Where:
 E = Stored energy
 m = Mass of water
 g = Acceleration due to gravity
 h = Height difference between reservoirs

3. Main Components
1. Upper Reservoir – Stores water at higher elevation
2. Lower Reservoir – Collects water after power generation
3. Pump-Turbine Unit – Works as both pump and turbine
4. Motor-Generator – Converts electrical ↔ mechanical energy
5. Penstock – Pipe carrying water between reservoirs

4. Working
Charging Mode (Energy Storage)
1. Excess electricity runs the motor.
2. Motor drives the pump.
3. Water is pumped to the upper reservoir.
4. Energy is stored as potential energy.
Discharging Mode (Power Generation)
1. Water flows down through turbines.
2. Turbine rotates the generator.
3. Electricity is produced and supplied to the grid.

5. Advantages
 Large-scale energy storage
  High efficiency (70–85%)
 Long lifespan
 Helps balance power demand and supply

6. Disadvantages
 High initial construction cost
 Requires suitable geographical location
 Environmental impact due to reservoirs

7. Applications
 Grid load balancing
 Peak power supply
 Renewable energy support (solar & wind)
 Power system stability
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
1. Definition
Compressed Air Energy Storage is a method of storing energy by compressing air and
storing it in underground caverns or storage tanks.
When electricity is needed, the compressed air is released to drive a turbine and
generate electricity.

2. Principle
The system works on the principle of storing energy in the form of compressed air.
 During low electricity demand, excess electricity powers compressors.
 Air is compressed and stored in underground storage.
 During high demand, compressed air is released to run a turbine and produce
electricity.

3. Main Components
1. Compressor
Compresses air using electrical energy.
2. Air Storage Chamber
Stores compressed air (usually underground caverns or tanks).
3. Combustion Chamber / Heater
Heats the compressed air before expansion.
4. Gas Turbine
Expands the air to generate mechanical energy.
5. Generator
Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

4. Working of CAES
Charging Process (Energy Storage)
1. Excess electricity powers the compressor.
2. Air is compressed and stored in underground reservoirs.
3. Energy is stored as compressed air pressure.
Discharging Process (Energy Generation)
1. Compressed air is released from storage.
2. Air is heated and expanded in a turbine.
 3. Turbine drives a generator to produce electricity.

5. Advantages
 Large-scale energy storage
 Long operating life
 Suitable for grid energy storage
 Helps manage peak electricity demand

6. Disadvantages
 Requires large underground storage space
 Lower efficiency compared to some other storage systems
 High installation cost

7. Applications
 Power grid load balancing
 Backup power systems
 Renewable energy storage (wind & solar)
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
1. Introduction
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) is a large-scale energy storage technology in which
electrical energy is stored in the form of compressed air.
During off-peak periods (when electricity demand is low), excess electrical energy is used to
compress air and store it in underground reservoirs.
During peak demand, the compressed air is released and expanded through a turbine to
generate electricity.
CAES systems are mainly used for grid load balancing and renewable energy support.

2. Principle of Operation
The working principle of CAES is based on energy conversion between electrical energy
and potential energy of compressed air.
The process involves two main stages:
1. Charging Stage (Energy Storage)
 Excess electricity from the grid powers an electric motor.
 The motor drives a compressor.
 The compressor compresses atmospheric air to high pressure.
 The compressed air is stored in underground caverns, salt domes, or storage tanks.
Thus electrical energy is converted into potential energy of compressed air.

2. Discharging Stage (Energy Generation)

 When electricity demand increases, compressed air is released from storage.
 The air is heated (sometimes using natural gas combustion).
 The heated compressed air expands through a gas turbine.
 The turbine drives a generator which produces electricity.
Thus stored energy is converted back to electrical energy.

3. Main Components of CAES System

1. Compressor
 Compresses atmospheric air.
  Operates using excess electricity.
2. Air Storage Reservoir
Compressed air is stored in:
 Underground caverns
 Salt domes
 Aquifers
 Steel storage tanks
These structures can hold large volumes of high-pressure air.

3. Combustion Chamber / Heater

Before expansion, the compressed air is heated to improve turbine efficiency.
Heating may be done using:
 Natural gas
 Recovered heat

4. Gas Turbine
The heated compressed air expands through the turbine and produces mechanical energy.

5. Generator
The turbine rotates the generator which produces electrical energy supplied to the power
grid.

4. Types of CAES Systems

1. Diabatic CAES
 Heat generated during compression is released to the atmosphere.
 Later the compressed air must be heated again using fuel.
 Most existing CAES plants use this method.

2. Adiabatic CAES
 Heat generated during compression is stored and reused later.
 No additional fuel is required.
 Higher efficiency compared to diabatic systems.

5. Advantages of CAES
1. Suitable for large-scale energy storage.
2. Helps maintain power grid stability.
3. Supports renewable energy integration.
4. Long system life.
5. Can store energy for long durations.

6. Disadvantages of CAES
1. Requires large underground storage structures.
2. High initial installation cost.
3. Efficiency is lower compared to some storage systems.
4. Some systems require fossil fuels for heating.

7. Applications
 Peak load power generation
  Grid stability improvement
 Renewable energy storage (wind & solar)
 Backup power systems
 Industrial energy storage

8. Example of CAES Power Plants

Two well-known CAES plants are:
 Huntorf CAES Plant – First commercial CAES plant (1978).
 McIntosh CAES Plant – One of the largest CAES facilities.