2.

Sensors &Actuators
PIR Motion Sensor:

PIR sensor consists of a fresnel lens, pyroelectric material (metal can and a
rectangular crystal).

A Fresnel lens which is made of high-density polythene concentrates the incoming

infrared radiations so that they fall on the pyroelectric material.

Metal can help to make the sensor more immune to temperature, humidity, and noise.
Pyroelectric material detects the changes in infrared radiation and generates an
output signal. It is made up of 2 slots of special material sensitive to IR. When a
person comes in the range of the sensor, the first slot creates a positive differential
voltage and when the person leaves the second slot creates a negative differential
voltage. These changes are detected.

The sensor is enclosed in a metal sheet protector and a silicon window is provided in that
to allow the infrared radiations to pass through it. The PIR motion sensors are mostly
rectangular in shape irrespective of the device they are installed in. To increase the
detection sensitivity, the motion detector devices cover the PIR sensor with lenses to focus
more energy on it.
Working Principle of PIR motion sensor :
All the objects, living things having a temperature more than absolute zero emit infrared radiations in
their surroundings. Warmer the object, more the infrared radiations are emitted.

The Passive Infrared Sensor is a thermal infrared sensor which detects the motion of objects on
reading these infrared radiations’ variations in its nearby environment.

The sensor has two equal slots made up of Pyroelectric material that is very sensitive to Infrared.
When the sensor is not active, both its slots sense the same amount of Infrared radiations coming
from any object, door or wall, etc.

When a warm body comes in the range of the PIR motion sensor, it passes through both the slots one
after the other. The moment it intercepts the first half of the sensor, a positive differential change is
caused between the two halves. Similarly, when it leaves the detection area a negative differential
change occurs between both the slots. These changes in the pulses are the indication to the sensor
that there is some motion in its detecting zone.

Advantages of PIR Motion Sensors :

 PIR motion sensors can detect moving objects even in dark with great accuracy.
 PIR sensors can detect the motion of objects without coming in contact with them.
 They are very easy to install and do not require much wiring.
 They reduce a lot of human efforts by making things to work automatically.
 They consume very less energy and thus reduce electricity bills a lot.
Disadvantages of PIR Motion Sensors :
 PIR motion sensors are a bit costly and can not be afforded by a majority of people.
 Passive Infrared Sensors sometimes behave abnormally during bad weather conditions.
 PIR sensors sometimes become incapable of detecting a very slow-moving object.
 Home security systems with PIR motion detectors sometimes trigger false alarms due to no
reason.
 PIR motion sensors have a very short detection range and thus sometimes it leads to a
loophole in Burglar alarm systems because of incomplete coverage issue.
Applications :
 Burglar Alarm Systems or Intrusion Detection System
 Automated Home Appliances
 Automated Doors
 Parking Areas
 Automated Lightings
 IR Thermometers
 Night Vision Cameras
 Gas Analyzers
 Moisture Analyzers
 Smoke and Fire Detectors
Gyrometer:

A gyrometer (gyroscope) sensor measures angular velocity using the Coriolis effect, typically
with tiny vibrating structures (MEMS) in smartphones or crystal elements in automotive
systems; construction involves a vibrating mass driven into oscillation, which deflects
perpendicularly when rotated, and this deflection (detected via capacitance or charge change) is
converted into an electrical signal representing rotation (degrees per second) for orientation
tracking in devices.

Construction:

This sensor consists of an internal vibrating element made up of crystal material in the shape of a
double – T- structure. This structure comprises a stationary part in the center with ‘Sensing Arm’
attached to it and ‘Drive Arm’ on both sides.

This double-T-structure is symmetrical. When an alternating vibration electrical field is applied

to the drive arms, continuous lateral vibrations are produced. As Drive arms are symmetrical,
when one arm moves to left the other moves to the right, thus canceling out the leaking
vibrations. This keeps the stationary part at the center and sensing arm remains static.

Also it consists of:

Proof Mass: A microscopic, vibrating mass, often crystal or silicon, suspended by flexible
beams.

Drive Element: Electrodes or piezoelectric material that electrostatically or piezoelectrically

vibrate the proof mass in a specific direction (e.g., back and forth).

Sensing Element: Sense electrodes or structures (like sensing arms in a double-T design)
positioned to detect the perpendicular movement (deflection) of the proof mass.

Signal Processing: On-chip electronics convert the sensed capacitance or charge change into a
digital voltage signal.
Working Principle:

An alternating voltage is applied to the drive electrodes, causing the drive arms or proof mass to vibrate
continuously in a fixed direction, known as the drive mode. When the device undergoes rotation about an
axis, the vibrating proof mass experiences a Coriolis force. This force acts perpendicular to both the
direction of vibration and the axis of rotation, resulting in a deflection of the proof mass in an orthogonal
plane called the sense mode. This deflection changes the distance between the proof mass and the sensing
electrodes, leading to a variation in capacitance. The sensor detects this change in capacitance and
converts it into an electrical output signal that is directly proportional to the applied angular velocity or
rate of rotation.

Applications:

Gyroscope Sensors are used for versatile applications. Ring laser Gyros are used in Aircraft and Source
shuttles whereas Fiber optic Gyros are used in racecars and motorboats.

Vibration Gyroscope sensors are used in the car navigation systems, Electronic stability control systems
of vehicles, motion sensing for mobile games, camera-shake detection systems in digital cameras, radio-
controlled helicopters, Robotic systems, etc…

DHT11:

DHT stands for Digital Humidity and Temperature. The DHT sensor is a low-cost digital sensor
for sensing temperature and humidity. This sensor can be easily interfaced with any micro-
controller such as Arduino, Raspberry Pi to measure humidity and temperature instantaneously.

We have two versions of the DHT sensors they are:

1. DHT11

2. DHT22

Construction:
 DHT sensor consists of a capacitive humidity sensing element and a thermistor for sensing
temperature. The humidity sensing capacitor has two electrodes with a moisture holding
substrate as a dielectric between them. Change in the capacitance value occurs with the
change in humidity levels.. For measuring temperature this sensor uses a NTC thermistor, A
thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies with temperature.

Technically, all resistors are thermistors in the sense that their resistance changes slightly with
temperature, but this change is typically very small and difficult to measure. Thermistors are
designed so that their resistance changes dramatically with temperature (by 100 ohms or more
per degree). The term “NTC” stands for “Negative Temperature Coefficient,” which means that
resistance decreases as temperature rises.

The term “NTC” means “Negative Temperature Coefficient”, which means that the resistance
decreases with increase of the temperature as shown in the graph below. To get larger
resistance value even for the smallest change in temperature, this sensor is usually made up of
semiconductor ceramics or polymers.

 VCC pin supplies power for the sensor. Although supply voltage ranges from 3.3V to 5.5V, 5V
supply is recommended.
 Data pin is used to communication between the sensor and the microcontroller.
 NC Not connected.
 Ground should be connected to the ground of the microcontroller that you are using.

Working Principle:

DHT11 has an NTC thermistor and humidity sensing components. When the
temperature changes, the resistance of the NTC also changes. This change in
resistance is measured and the temperature is calculated from it. The humidity
sensing component consists of a moisture-holding substrate sandwiched in
between two electrodes. When the substrate absorbs water content, the
resistance between the two electrodes decreases. The change in resistance
between the two electrodes is proportional to the relative humidity. Higher
relative humidity decreases the resistance between the electrodes, while lower
relative humidity increases the resistance between the electrodes. This change
in resistance is measured with the onboard MCU’s ADC and the relative humidity
is calculated.
Servo Motor:

A servo motor is a precision motor that uses a servo motor working principle
based on closed-loop feedback control, which can rotate to specific angles with
exceptional accuracy. If you want to rotate an object to specific angles or
distances, servo motors are the ideal choice due to their servo
mechanism with built-in position feedback. Popular servo motor
models include SG90 (micro servo), MG995 (metal gear servo), and industrial
servo motors from Siemens, Yaskawa, and Fanuc for high-precision applications.
The servo motor working principle involves endless comparison between the
desired position (i.e., input signal) and the actual position (feedback signal) such
that errors in position are eliminated.

Key Features: Servo motors are usually rated in kg/cm (kilogram per
centimetre), and most hobby servos, like the SG90, MG995, etc, which are often
used in our electronics projects, are rated at 3kg/cm, 6kg/cm, or 12kg/cm. This
rating indicates the weight the motor can lift at a specific distance. For example,
a 6kg/cm servo can lift 6kg when the load is 1cm from the motor shaft.

Block diagram of servo motor:

Construction:

A DC servo motor is an assembly of four major components,

  DC motor
 Position sensing device
 Gear assembly
 Control circuit

DC Motor: The main driving unit, which can be a DC motor (brushed or brushless) or an AC motor.

Position sensing device:Usually a potentiometer in hobby/DC servos or an encoder/resolver in industrial/AC

servos. It continuously monitors the output shaft's actual position.

Control Circuit: The "brain" that receives input signals, compares them to the feedback, and generates
corrective commands.

Gear Assembly: A set of gears that reduces the motor's high speed and increases its torque to move heavy
loads with precision

Working Principle:

A servo consists of a Motor (DC or AC), a potentiometer, a gear assembly, and a

controlling circuit. First of all, we use gear assembly to reduce RPM and to
increase the torque of the motor. At the initial position of the servo motor shaft,
the position of the potentiometer knob is such that there is no electrical signal
generated at the output port of the potentiometer. Now, an electrical signal is
given to another input terminal of the error detector amplifier. Now the
difference between these two signals, one comes from the potentiometer and
another comes from other sources, will be processed in a feedback mechanism,
and the output will be provided in terms of an error signal. This error signal acts
as the input for the motor, and the motor starts rotating. Now the motor shaft is
connected with the potentiometer, and as the motor rotates so the
potentiometer will generate a signal. So as the potentiometer’s angular position
changes, its output feedback signal changes. After some time, the position of
the potentiometer reaches a position where the output of the potentiometer is
the same as the external signal provided. Under these conditions, there will be
no output signal from the amplifier to the motor input, as there is no difference
between the externally applied signal and the signal generated at the
potentiometer, and in this situation motor stops rotating.

Stepper Motor:
A stepper motor is an open-loop digital actuator that rotates in fixed angular steps. It has multiple
stator windings that are energized sequentially by pulses from the IoT controller. Each electrical pulse
moves the rotor by one step, so the number of pulses controls position, pulse frequency controls
speed, and pulse sequence controls direction. Stepper motors are commonly used in 3D printers, CNC
machines, and precise positioning devices in IoT applications.
Types of Stepper Motor

By construction the step motors come into three broad classes:

1. Permanent Magnet Stepper

2. Variable Reluctance Stepper

3. Hybrid Step Motor

Construction:

1. Stator

 The stator is made of laminated soft iron to reduce eddy current losses.
 It contains multiple poles with windings arranged in two phases (Phase A and Phase
B).
 When current flows through these windings in sequence, a rotating magnetic field is
produced.

2. Rotor

 The rotor is made of a permanent magnet with north and south poles.
 It is usually cylindrical and magnetized along its diameter.
 The rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field created by the energized stator poles,
producing step-by-step rotation.

3. Shaft and Bearings

 The rotor is mounted on a shaft supported by bearings.

 Bearings ensure smooth and low-friction rotation of the rotor.

4. Air Gap
  A small uniform air gap is maintained between stator and rotor.
 This helps in efficient magnetic coupling and accurate stepping.

5. Frame or Housing

 The entire assembly is enclosed in a metal frame that provides mechanical support and
protection.

. Principle of Operation

 The stator contains two windings (Phase-A and Phase-B) placed 90° apart.

 When current flows through a phase winding, it produces a magnetic field with north
and south poles on the stator teeth.

 The permanent magnet rotor aligns itself with this magnetic field due to magnetic
attraction and repulsion.

 Changing the energized phase shifts the magnetic field position, forcing the rotor to move
to a new equilibrium position.

 This movement occurs in fixed angular steps, not continuous rotation.

2. Step-by-Step Excitation Sequence

The rotor rotation depends on the sequence of energizing stator phases.

Step 1: Phase-A Energized

 Current is supplied to Phase-A winding only.

 A magnetic field is created along Phase-A axis.

 The rotor aligns with this field and stops at the first stable position.

Step 2: Phase-B Energized

 Phase-A is turned OFF and Phase-B is energized.

 The magnetic field shifts by 90° electrical.

 The rotor moves to the next position, completing one step.

Step 3: Reverse Phase-A Energized (A̅ )

 Current direction in Phase-A is reversed.

  Magnetic polarity of Phase-A poles changes.

 Rotor again moves forward by one more step.

Step 4: Reverse Phase-B Energized (B̅ )

 Current in Phase-B is reversed.

 Rotor shifts to the next step position.

After completing the sequence:

A → B → A̅ → B̅ → (repeat)
the rotor continues rotating step-by-step in clockwise direction.
Reversing the sequence causes anticlockwise rotation.

3. Control of Motion

 Number of input pulses → Total angular displacement

 Pulse frequency → Speed of rotation

 Order of phase excitation → Direction of rotation

Thus, precise position control is achieved without feedback, which is why it is called an open-
loop control system.

4. Step Angle

 Each excitation change rotates the rotor by a fixed angle called the step angle
(commonly 1.8°, 7.5°, or 15° depending on design).

 Smaller step angle → higher positioning accuracy.

When a stator is energized, it develops electromagnetic poles. The magnetic rotor aligns along
the magnetic field of the stator. The other stator is then energized in the sequence so that the
rotor moves and aligns itself to the new magnetic field. This way energizing the stators in a fixed
sequence rotates the stepper motor by fixed angles.

 Need of Relay While Using Actuators:

A relay is an electrically operated switch that allows a low-power control signal from a
microcontroller or sensor circuit to control a high-power electrical load such as motors, pumps,
solenoids, heaters, or lamps. It plays an important role in automation, robotics, and IoT-based
systems where actuators require higher voltage and current than the control circuit can safely
provide.

1. Electrical Isolation

Microcontrollers generally operate at 3.3 V or 5 V with very low current, whereas actuators may
require 12 V, 24 V, or AC mains voltage.
A relay provides galvanic isolation between the control circuit and the power circuit, protecting
sensitive electronic components from high voltage and noise.

2. Switching of High Voltage and High Current Loads

Controller pins cannot directly drive heavy loads.

A relay enables a small electrical signal to safely switch ON or OFF large electrical power,
making it suitable for controlling motors, pumps, and industrial devices.

3. Protection Against Damage

Actuators like motors and solenoids generate back EMF (electromotive force) and high current
surges.
The relay prevents these harmful effects from reaching the microcontroller, thereby avoiding
overheating or permanent damage to electronic circuits.

4. Ability to Control AC and DC Devices

Microcontrollers can directly control only low-voltage DC loads.

Relays allow safe switching of both AC and DC appliances, which is essential in home
automation and industrial control systems.

5. Remote and Automatic Operation

Relays make it possible to control actuators remotely or automatically using sensors, timers, or
IoT platforms.
This improves convenience, efficiency, and safety in smart systems.

6. Multiple Load Control

Using relay modules, a single controller can manage multiple actuators independently, which
is useful in automation panels and robotic systems.
An electromechanical relay is constructed with an electromagnetic coil, a movable iron armature,
a yoke, springs, and electrical contact sets (NO/NC). When current flows through the coil, it
magnetizes the core, pulling the armature to open or close contacts. It acts as an electromagnetic
switch, isolating control circuits from high-power loads.

Key Components and Construction Details:

 Electromagnet: A coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, which generates a
magnetic field when energized.

 Armature: A movable piece of metal balanced on a pivot, attracted by the electromagnet

to actuate the contacts.

 Contacts: Conductors (fixed and moving) that make or break the circuit. Good contacts
have minimal resistance and low wear.

 Yoke: A metal piece that holds the armature and helps guide the magnetic flux.

 Spring: Provides tension to return the armature to its normal position (de-energized
state).

 Housing/Frame: Provides structural support and insulation for the components.

Working Principle:

 A relay is an electrical device that helps to complete the circuit and thus
controls a large amount of electricity with low power.

 It operates on simple electromagnetic induction principles:

 When an electric current passes through a wire winding within the relay’s coil,
it creates magnetic flux which pulls down its armature and closes contacts
connected mechanically to a second set of terminals functioning as output
switches from one location to another.
 This process continues until either power is cut off (opening circuits) or when
the manual button is pressed internally, which reverts back to resetting
operation (closing circuits).
 An electromechanical switch that opens and closes circuits is called a relay.
The main function of this device is to establish or break contact by a signal,
and it does not need human interaction to be turned on or off.
 It is mostly utilised to employ a low-power signal to operate a high-powered
circuit. Typically, a DC signal is utilised to operate a circuit that is powered by
high voltage, such as when using microcontrollers to operate AC home
appliances.