ABSTRACT

This Project titled Study of “Computer Networking Fundamentals and

Configuration” it aims the Computer Networking plays a vital role in modern
communication systems by enabling the exchange of data between connected
devices. This project presents a comprehensive study of fundamental
networking concepts including the Cisco Three-Layer Hierarchical Model,
Ethernet cabling, OSI model, TCP/IP protocol suite, IP addressing, sub netting,
routing, switching, and VLAN configuration.

The report explains the layered architecture of networks and the

importance of structured design for scalability and performance. It discusses
the functionality of TCP and IP protocols, differences between IPv4 and IPv6
addressing, and the role of sub-net masks and default gateways in network
communication. The project also examines router configuration and IOS
(Internet work Operating System) developed by Cisco Systems, along with
different types of router memory.
Furthermore, the study explores static and dynamic routing methods,
default route configuration, and switching techniques including VLAN
implementation for traffic management and security enhancement.

Overall, this project provides both theoretical knowledge and practical

insight into the design, configuration, and management of computer networks,
forming a strong foundation for advanced networking studies and professional
certification.

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 INDEX
[Link] TITLE PAGE
NO.
1 CHAPTER-1
Introduction
1.1 Background of The Study
1.2 Needs of study
1.3 Objectives of study
1.4 Limitations
2 CHAPTER-2
Conceptual Framework
1.1 Basic Networking Concepts
1.2 TCP/IP
1.3 IOS Commands and Router Configurations
1.4 Routing and Routing Protocols
1.5 Switching
3 CHAPTER-3
COMPANY PROFILE
4 CHAPTER-4
Presentation of Data Analysis and
Interpretation.
5 CHAPTER-5
Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
5.1 Findings
5.2 Suggestions
5.3 Conclusion

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 CHAPTER-I
Introduction

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 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Computer networking plays a vital role in modern communication
systems by enabling a smooth exchange of data between connected devices.
As the backbone of digital infrastructure, it facilitates everything from basic file
sharing to complex global communications.
This project, titled "Study of Computer Networking Fundamentals and
Configuration," provides a comprehensive study of essential networking
concepts and their practical applications. It explores the theoretical
frameworks that govern how networks function, such as the OSI model and the
TCP/IP protocol suite, which categorize and standardize the various tasks
performed by computer systems.
The report delves into critical architectural designs, including the Cisco
Three-Layer Hierarchical Model, which simplifies network management by
braking systems into Core, Distribution, and Access layers. This structured
approach is fundamental for ensuring network scalability, performance, and
ease of troubleshooting.
Key areas of study covered in this project include:
 Physical Infrastructure:
An examination of Ethernet cabling (Straight Through, Crossover, and
Rolled) and essential hardware like hubs, switches, and routers.
 Addressing and Subnetting:
Understanding the differences between IPv4 and IPv6 addressing, as well
as the use of subnet masks and default gateways to manage network traffic
efficiently.
 Routing and Switching:
Exploring static and dynamic routing methods, along with switching
techniques like VLAN implementation to enhance security and traffic
management.
 Configuration and Management:
Practical insight into the Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS),
including command-line configuration and router memory management. By
combining theoretical knowledge with practical configuration insights, this
project establishes a strong foundation for advanced networking studies and

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professional industry certifications.

1.2 NEEDS OF THE STUDY

The study of computer networking fundamentals and configuration is
essential because networking is the backbone of modern communication
systems, enabling data exchange between connected devices.
According to the provided project report, the key reasons and benefits for
studying this topic include:

 Understanding Modern Communication:

Computer networking plays a vital role in enabling communication and
data exchange in today's digital world.
 Improving Network Performance and Scalability:
Learning about structured network design and layered architecture (like
the OSI and Cisco models) is critical for building networks that can scale
efficiently while maintaining high performance.
 Enhanced Troubleshooting:
A fundamental understanding of how each network layer
functions makes identifying and fixing network issues considerably
easier.
 Effective Resource Management:
Networking allows for the sharing of resources and files, making work
environments more efficient than ever before.
 Network Security:
The study covers essential security aspects, such as using VLANs for
traffic management and security enhancement, and implementing
authentication servers like Radius and TACACS+. Professional
 Advancement:
This knowledge forms a strong foundation for advanced networking
studies and prepares students for industry standard professional
certifications like CCNA.

 Business Competitive Advantage:

Organizations that effectively utilize and manage their network systems
can collect and analyze crucial information faster, giving them a significant
advantage over competitors.

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 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Based on the project report, the study of computer networking
fundamentals and configuration aims to provide both theoretical and practical
insights into several core areas. The objectives can be denoted through the
following key topics and learning outcomes.
Core Theoretical Objectives
 Understanding Network Models:
To study the layered architecture of networks, specifically focusing on
the Cisco Three Layer Hierarchical Model (Core, Distribution, and Access
layers) and the OSI Seven-Layer Model.
 Learning Protocol Suites:
To comprehend the functionality of the TCP/ IP protocol suite,
including how data is divided into packets and reassembled.
 IP Addressing Fundamentals:
To distinguish between IPv4 and IPv6 addressing, understand subnet
masks, and recognize the role of default gateways in network
communication.
 Networking Hardware & Topology:
To identify various network devices (hubs, switches, routers, bridges, and
gateways) and explore different physical and logical arrangements like Star, Bus, Ring, and
Mesh topologies.
Practical Configuration Objectives
 Physical Connectivity:
To learn about Ethernet cabling standards, including the use of Straight-Through,
Crossover, and Rollover cables for connecting various devices.
 Operating System Mastery:
To gain proficiency in the Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS),
understanding how to use command-line interfaces to configure networking devices.
 Routing and Switching Implementation:
Implementing Static and Dynamic routing methods to manage data traffic
between networks.
 Device Management:
To understand router memory types (Running-Config, Startup-Config, and Flash) and
how they affect device operation and configuration persistence.
Professional Foundation

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 The ultimate objective of this study is to form a strong foundation for students
aiming for advanced networking studies or industry-standard professional certifications such
as the CCNA.

1.4 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The limitations of this topic are primarily addressed through current
constraints in networking technologies and suggestions for future
improvements to the study.
Technological Limitations
The report identifies specific technical limitations within current
networking practices:

 IPv4 Address Exhaustion:

A significant limitation of IPv4 is its 32-bit format, which only allows for
approximately four billion unique addresses. This is insufficient for the growing
number of internet users and devices globally.

 Static Routing Constraints:

Static routing is limited by its manual nature; routing tables must be
updated manually, making it time-consuming and prone to errors.
Furthermore, static routes are not fault-tolerant, meaning data will not be
rerouted automatically if a path fails.

 Half-Duplex Ethernet:
In half-duplex mode (often used with hubs), data can only travel in one
direction at a time. This is less efficient than full-duplex and makes data
collisions inevitable.

 Security of Mobile Devices:

Managing the security of mobile devices connecting to corporate
networks is noted as a difficult task from a security policy standpoint.

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 CHAPTER-2
Conceptual Framework

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 2.1 Basic Networking Concepts
2.1.1 The Cisco Three Layer Hierarchy Model

Cisco Systems have invented a three-layered Hierarchical Model for

simplifying the task of networking and for enhancing the efficiency to a
greater extent. These three layers break down the networking system making
it more intelligible and workable for both smaller and larger networking
setups. However, the Layered model assists and facilitates the larger networks
even more and can be seen as a great development in the field of networking.
With the advent of Cisco Three Layer Hierarchy Model the
comprehension of the network layout and functioning has become quite
easier. Since each layer possesses its own functioning thus troubleshooting has
also become considerably easier. Despite all these enhanced features Cisco
Three Layer Hierarchical Model remains to be cost-effective.
The Cisco Three Layer Hierarchical Model entails the following layers:
 Core Layer:
Core Layer acts as a fulcrum point for the entire network setup. Its
layout consists of high-speed cables such as fiber cables and high-end
switches. It basically works in transferring a large amount of data with high
speed, owing to the implanted devices such as high-end switches and routers
in this particular layer.
It has the capability to alter traffic data at the fastest rate. It is a
very critical yet simply designed layer. It is devised to manage and balance the
load and often uses mesh topology. The latency period is lower in Core Layer,
and hence its performance in data transmission is enhanced. Fault tolerance is
also one of the specific features of core layer. It encapsulates a backup system
which is termed as ‘redundancy’ which saves the network operation in case of
any failure.

 Distribution Layer:
This layer act as a bridge or a junction between, core and Access Layer. It ensures
proper routing between sub-nets and VLANs of packets. The primary function of this layer is
to provide accessibility between the two layers and between the packets and core by

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ensuring the performance of functions such as routing, WAN access and filtering.
Distribution layer performs multiple functions and is not function specified such as the
other two layers.
All the access layer switches, including OSI Layer 3 switches and
routers which are LAN-based, stem from distribution layer, and is an active participant in
core routing design. Furthermore, key functions of distribution layer include: Static routing
and security filtering, including hiding network numbers (internal), combining LAN wiring
and connections of WAN.

 Access Layer:
Lowermost layer of the Cisco model, Access Layer or ‘Desktop layer’
provides the widest variety of features. It basically links inter network
resources with local work group. It enables access to different work groups,
being a junction of the provision of many networking services, and ensures
that most of the resources be made available locally for the users.
This also involves the execution and implementation of many
configuration-related tasks. It has Layer 2 and Layer 3 services, plus a number
of authentication servers including: Radius and TACACS+. Access layer also
segments by creating separating domains of collision.

2.1.2 Ethernet Cabling

Ethernet Cabling has become a part and parcel of the networking field
and communication. Ethernet cables are used for connecting devices on LANs
[Local Area Network] such as switches, routers and PCs etc. Ethernet cabling is
carried out via different cables as per the particular need and design of the
networking structure. These cables encapsulate three major kinds namely;
Straight Through Cable, Cross over Cable and Rolled Cable.

The classification of the cables into three types originates from the
difference or the way in which they are wired, the manner in which pin-to-pin
connection is held. Straight Through Cables, as the name signifies are used for
linking dissimilar devices. Straight Through Cable is used for connecting a LAN
port to a computer, hub or switch. It is an 8 wired patch cable. It is also used
when connecting a PC to a switch and also for connecting router to a hub, or a
printer to the router etc. Its main purpose is to connect a host to the client.

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 However, a computer would not be able to get connected to a router
via Straight Through Cables because both of them are considered to be the
“same” devices. These cables can be termed as the standard ones as per the
percentage of their usage in various networking setups. If we consider two
connectors such as A and B, both having 8 ends of wires originating from one
connector and ending at the other. In such a layout, straight through cables
will initiate from Pin 1 of Connector A and would go to the same Pin 1 of
Connector B. Models like RJ connectors are mainly used for such cable design.

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 Crossover Cables are planted to connect two hosts together. The cables
are crossed wired to let the two computers or hosts get connected directly. It
can also be said that primarily Crossover Cables are used when like or same
devices are intended to be connected. The pairs of wires crisscross each other
which makes the communication path for the two devices to communicate at
the same time.

Rollover wired Cables connects any device or a computer terminal to a

network switch console port. The cables connected in a rolling manner are not
responsible for the connectivity of the network or transmitting data rather
they only establish an interface with the device. Pin 1 gets connected to Pin 8
in Connector B. Their usage is not extensive and they are normally available in
different colors from the Crossover and Straight Through Cables.

2.1.3 Ethernet Networking

It is a technology mainly used for LAN networks and is associated with
the physical layer or data link layer. In the olden times the medium of
connection used for the connection of Ethernet devices was copper cables,
the trend has been replaced now by fiber optic cables. Switching of Ethernet
gave birth to two types Half Duplex and Full Duplex Ethernet. It also has the
mechanism of auto detection which is built in with the ability to assess of rate
of exchange; also, it decides with which mode of transmission it will go Full
Duplex or Half.
In Full Duplex, the data can be sent and received at the same time. The
reception and transmission take place simultaneously and hence the speed of

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data transfer increases. The data travels between source node and destination
node. There is no occurrence of collision when it comes to full duplex
Ethernet. The data cables used for reception and transfer of data are different
and rules over the possibility of interference and hence makes the efficiency
up to 100%. They can also carry multiple conversations with different
computers at one time unlike in Half duplex mode of transmission.

Full duplex transmission mode certainly finds its best place in the areas
having higher loads and managing various networking paths at one time. It
has the potential to cater with larger data traffic in a finer and speedier way.
On the other hand, half duplex transmission involves the data transference
only in one direction. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Domain
(CSMA/CD) is a fundamental part of Half Duplex as it has the ability to
transmit the data again when collision occurs. Hub is also a vital part of half
duplex transmission. It is comparatively not that efficient as compared to the
full duplex. 10Base2 uses half duplex.

2.1.4 OSI Layer Model

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) has been developed by
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It is a networking flow of
data built upon and comprehended as a virtual hierarchy. OSI Layer Model is
the system’s conceptual model; it is abstract and not physical as the
motherboard or RAM, but the working of the computer system is based on the
layering of the OSI model.
OSI model relates the computers’ functions together, characterizing the
functions, as well as interconnecting and assembling the tasks to be
performed. It is layered, therefore one look at the ‘layers’ of the OSI model will
give you an idea about the order of fulfillment of computer tasks.
The model has seven layers enumerated as follows:

1. Application layer
2. Presentation layer
3. Session layer
4. Transport layer
5. Network layer

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 6. Data link layer
7. Physical layer
The layers are ‘stacked’ or arranged in the order which has the physical
layer as the lower most layer and the application layer as the highest. The
‘physical layer’ up to the ‘transport layer’ is known as the lower layers,
whereas the ‘session layer’ up to the ‘application layer’ makes up the upper
layers of the OSI model.

2.1.5 Network Devices

 HUB


Hub is one of the basic icons of networking devices which works at

physical layer and hence connect networking devices physically together. Hubs
are fundamentally used in networks that use twisted pair cabling to connect
devices. They are designed to transmit the packets to the other appended
devices without altering any of the transmitted packets received. They act as
pathways to direct electrical signals to travel along. They transmit the
information regardless of the fact if data packet is destined for the device
connected or not.

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  Ethernet Hubs


It is a device connecting multiple Ethernet devices together and makes

them perform the functions as a single unit. They vary in speed in terms of
data transfer rate. Ether utilizes Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detect (CSMA/CD) to control Media access. Ethernet hub communicates in
half duplex mode where the chances of data collision are inevitable at most of
the times.

 Switches


Switches are the linkage points of an Ethernet network. Just as in hub,

devices in switches are connected to them through twisted pair cabling. But
the difference shows up in the manner both the devices; hub and a switch
treat the data they receive. Hub works by sending the data to all the ports on
the device whereas a switch transfers it only to that port which is connected
to the destination device. A switch does so by having an in-built learning of the
MAC address of the devices connected to it. Since the transmission of data
signals are well defined in a switch hence the network performance is
consequently enhanced. Switches operate in full-duplex mode where devices
can send and receive data from the half duplex mode. The transmission speed
in switches is double than in Ethernet hub transferring a 20Mbps connection
into 30Mbps and a 200Mbps connection to become 300Mbps. Performance
improvements are observed in networking with the extensive usage of
switches in the modern days.

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 .

 Bridges


A bridge is a computer networking device that builds the connection

with the other bridge networks which use the same protocol. It works at the
Data Link layer of the OSI Model and connects the different networks together
and develops communication between them. It connects two local-area
networks; two physical LANs into larger logical LAN or two segments of the
same LAN that use the same protocol.

Apart from building up larger networks, bridges are also used to

segment larger networks into smaller portions. The bridge does so by placing
itself between the two portions of two physical networks and controlling the
flow of the data between them. Bridges nominate to forward the data after
inspecting into the MAC address of the devices connected to every segment.

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The forwarding of the data is dependent on the acknowledgement of the fact
that the destination address resides on some other interface. It has the
capacity to block the incoming flow of data as well.
Today Learning bridges have been introduced that build a list of the
MAC addresses on the interface by observing the traffic on the network. This
is a leap in the development field of manually recording of MAC addresses.

 Routers


Routers are network layer devices and are particularly identified as

Layer- 3 devices of the OSI Model. They process logical addressing information
in the Network header of a packet such as IP Addresses. Router is used to
create larger complex networks by complex traffic routing. It has the ability to
connect dissimilar LANs on the same protocol. It also has the ability to limit
the flow of broadcasts. A router primarily comprises of a hardware device or a
system of the computer which has more than one network interface and
routing software

 Static Routing:
In static routing, the routing information is fed into the routing tables
manually. It does not only become a time-taking task but gets prone to errors
as well. The manual updating is also required in case of statically configured
routers when change in the topology of the network or in the layout takes
place. Thus, static routing is feasible for tinniest environments with minimum
of one or two routers.
 Dynamic Routing:

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 For larger environment dynamic routing proves to be the practical
solution. The process involves use of peculiar routing protocols to hold
communication. The purpose of these protocols is to enable the other routers
to transfer information about to other routers, so that the other routers can
build their own routing tables.


 Brouters


Brouters are the combination of both the bridge and routers. They take
up the functionality of the both networking devices serving as a bridge when
forwarding data between networks, and serving as a router when routing data
to individual systems. Brouters functions as a filter that allows some data into
the local network and redirects unknown data to the other network.

Brouters are rare and their functionality is embedded into the routers
functioned to act as bridge as well.


 Gateways


Gateway is a device which is used to connect multiple networks and

passes packets from one packet to the other network. Acting as the ‘gateway’
between different networking systems or computer programs, a gateway is a
device which forms a link between them. It allows the computer programs,
either on the same computer or on different computers to share information
across the network through protocols. A router is also a gateway, since it
interprets data from one network protocol to another.

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 Others such as bridge converts the data into different forms between two
networking systems. Then a software application converts the data from one
format into another. Gateway is a viable tool to translate the data format,
although the data itself remains unchanged. Gateway might be installed in
some other device to add its functionality into another.

 Network card


Network cards also known as Network Interface Cards (NICs) are

hardware devices that connect a computer with the network. They are
installed on the mother board. They are responsible for developing a physical
connection between the network and the computer. Computer data is
translated into electrical signals send to the network via Network Interface
Cards.

They can also manage some important data-conversion function. These

days network cards are software configured unlike in olden days when drivers
were needed to configure them. Even if the NIC doesn’t come up with the
software, then the latest drivers or the associated software can be
downloaded from the internet as well.


 Network protocols


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 Network protocols define a language of instructions and conventions for
communication between the network devices. It is essential that a networked
computer must have one or more protocol drivers. Usually, for two computers
to interconnect on a network, they must use identical protocols. At times, a
computer is designed to use multiple protocols. Network protocols like HTTP,
TCP/IP offer a basis on which much of the Internet stands.


 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)



ISDN are used to send over graphic or audio data files. It is a WAN
technology that can be used in place of a dial up link. The accessibility of ISDN
depends upon the provision of the service by the service provider, the quality
of the line set up to your area. It surely provides higher speed than a modem
and has the capability to pick up the line and drop it considerably at a faster
rate.
ISDN can create numerous communication routes on a single line.
Nowadays, even faster and cheaper technologies that ISDN have found their
way in the realm of technology.

 Modems


Modem is a device which converts the computer-generated digital

signals of a computer into analog signals to enable their travelling via phone
lines. The ‘modulator-demodulator’ or modem can be used as a dial up for
LAN or to connect to an ISP. Modems can be both external, as in the device
which connects to the USB or the serial port of a computer, or proprietary

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devices for handheld gadgets and other devices, as well as internal; in the
form of add-in expansion cards for computers and PCMCIA cards for laptops.

Configuration of a modem differs for both the external and internal

modem. For internal modems, IRQ – Interrupt request is used to configure the
modem along with I/O, which is a memory address. Typically, before the
installation of built-in modem, integrated serial interfaces are disabled,
simultaneously assigning them the COM2 resources.



2.1.6 Network Topology



Network topology is the arrangement of various network elements used

in data transmission and formation of interconnections like nodes and links
with each other. This linking of various elements is known as network
topology.
Network topology is of two types:
• Physical topology
• Logical topology
Physical topology is the mapping out of the various interconnections
that are visible and which is the physical design of that network. Logical
topography is the mind mapping of such intercommunication diagrams that
you make while identifying a network. It shows how the data flows within a
functioning network. A good example is the local area network. A local area
network, or LAN, works as having many connections with various devices in a
given network. Such that when a map is drawn out of the interconnections, a
geometrical shape is formed. This is the physical topography of that network.

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On the other hand, the understanding of the flow of data and its transmission
forms the logical topography.
 Point to point
 Bus
 Star
 Ring or circular
 Mesh
 Tree
 Hybrid
 Daisy chain

 Point to point:
This is the simplest and the earliest type of topology that links two end
points. This has been used by the telephonic systems and is the oldest type of
network topology. A simple example of such a topology is how main frames

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and mini computers are connected to terminals. There can be one terminal or
various terminals but that one terminal server will have a point-to-point
topological access to each of its subscriber. Hence it doesn’t matter that if the
terminals are hooked together as the main computer is transmitting the data
individually to all the other computers. Point to point topology is the oldest
type of network arrangement and it is from where the various other
topological arrangements have been evolved.

 Bus
Remember the buses functioning in the iconic city of San Francisco?
They function through a set of cable wires that are laid throughout the city.
That cable wired are commonly for all of the buses and act as their common
mode of power supply. Taking that practical example and incorporating it in
network topologies, helped making the most widely used and popular network
topologies of all time, the bus topology. In this topology, a single cable is
connected to the main computer and that is further branched out to reach out
to the various other computers out there.

 Star:
Star topology is the arrangement of the computers in such a way that all
the terminals or work stations are connected to the main central hub. The
terminals are referred to as the clients and the main central hub is referred to
as the switch. It is the easiest way of arranging a network topology with one
central main computer connected to several other functioning terminals. All
the network traffic passes through the central device and all the data
transmission occurs through the main switch as well as all the hub acts as the
signal repeater.

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  Ring or Circular:
Ring network topology is that in which all the terminals are arranged in
a circular fashion and that all the data that is transmitted across the terminals
is transferred in a circular pattern so that all the terminals receive it. In this
kind of network topology, all the terminals have a data receiver to get all the
signals from the predecessor computer and a data transmitter that ejects all
the signals out to the next neighboring computer.

 Mesh:
Mesh topology is the most complicated to build as compared to other
topologies and it is less popular due to its sheer impracticality. In this kind of
topology all the devices are connected to each other and that the data
transferred from one system is sent and received by all the other systems. In
this way, the data is transferred in not a one-way route but in multiple access
pathways and that all the workstations are functioning in data receiving and
data sending at the same time.

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  Tree:
A tree network topology is the one in which there is a main functioning
root node that is then connected to other servers via point-to-point topology
in the levels of hierarchy. In other words, this topology is connected as a
branching network of terminals. Each level of terminals has a specific number
of nodes that it can connect.
The topology works in hierarchy fashion.

 Hybrid:

A hybrid network topology is the kind of arranging work stations in such

a way that it doesn’t resembles any of the basic network topologies like the
star, bus or ring, etc. Rather it amalgamates the two types of topologies to
create a new one. For example, the star ring network or a star bus network. A
star ring network uses multiple networks arranged in star topologies that are
then connected together using a multi station access unit as a centralized hub.

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  Daisy chain:
A daisy chain network topology allows the workstation to be connected
in such a way that the data which has to be sent is transmitted in a sequence.
It makes it easy for adding more connections and station in the topology as
daisy chaining and causes the data flow to be transmitted in such a way that
all the signals are transmitted station to station one after the other in a
sequence that causes them to end up in their desired destination. A daisy
chain topology can be arranged in two ways:
A linear topology: The linear topology allows the station to send and
receive the data in a two-way fashion. This was difficult to build as all the
stations required two receivers and two transmitters.
Ring topology: It is formed by all the computers connected by each
other through their ends. This ensures that all the data is transmitted by the
computers one after the other and if there is a pathway break then the data is
transmitted in the reverse fashion ensuring that the signals are received at
their desired destination.

2.1.7 Computer Networking

A network comprises of two or much more computer systems that are

connected in sequence to discuss sources, exchange data files, or enable
electronic digital marketing communications. The computer systems on a
network may be connected by means of wires, phone lines, radio waves,
satellite, or infra-red-light beams.

There are a lot of actions to starting a small business enterprise, just

one of which is obtaining the technological innovation side of factors set up.
Computer networking experts are an essential source when it’s time to set up
this program. They do a lot more than computer networking, although. They
offer the products and solutions and provide coaching and desktop computer
assist as well. Take into consideration these important items and expert
services when organizing for this crucial action in the procedure.
After buying tools for the business enterprise, computer networking is
the initial action in the procedure. It includes building a relationship among all

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the local programs so that they can connect with each other and work at the
exact podium. Computer networking services is an extremely appropriate
profession that a lot of people are selecting to practice.

Computer networking has allowed people to do the work and get work
home much more effectively than has ever been achievable before. Today’s
mobile employees connect several devices to the corporate and business
network that are difficult to manage from a security plan viewpoint. It is a
typical string that organizations that increase the utilization of and advantages
from the capabilities and abilities of their systems are capable to collect,
evaluate, and spread crucial marketing and advertising information rapidly,
which can give them a benefit over their challengers.

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 2.2 TCP/IP
2.2.1 TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (often shortened to TCP) is set of rules
which pair up with other sets of rules when sending data between computers
locally or over the internet. It is one of the most common protocols used when
using the internet alongside-IP, and is used by web browsers when they
connect to the internet.

When data (such as an HTML internet page for example) is sent

between computers, TCP divides it up into individual units, called data grams
or packets – this ensures they arrive efficiently and are tracked safely from one
computer to another. TCP is responsible for breaking the data being sent down
into these packets, and then reassembling them in the correct order at the
other end so they make sense again.
The actual delivery of the data is handled by another set of protocols.

2.2.2 Subnet Mask

 Subnet Mask

A subnet splits up the traffic on a network into smaller, more

manageable, logical groups. This can allow for improvement in the network’s
performance and security. A subnet mask is a binary code which is formatted
similarly to an IP Address, e.g. [Link]. An IP address generally gives
information about the network overall and the specific device being used,
however when a Subnet Mask is used alongside it the information provided by

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the IP Address is further extended to also provide information about the
subnet being used.

This can be useful to very large networks, for example a large

multinational company’s internal network, as it can help avoid delays and
confusion when transferring data. The Subnet Mask provides clear information
to the gateways within the network so they know exactly where to send each
piece of data that is transmitted without any delays or hesitations.

2.2.3 IP Adress
 IP Address
An IP Address is a unique number assigned to each and every device
which is participating in a network. A device could be a computer, a printer, or
anything else which connects to either a local network or the internet. All
computers connected to the internet use IP Addresses when communicating
with each other.

IP Addresses are made up of Binary Code, but are displayed in numbers

so humans are able to read it. These are usually groups of numbers separated
by dots, for example [Link]. There are several types of IP Address,
such as IPv4 and IPv6, the latter of which is newer and becoming more
popular as it is able to create more unique addresses, allowing more people
than ever before to use the internet. IP Addresses can be static, meaning they
are created by the user themselves, or dynamic, meaning they are assigned
automatically by the network – dynamic is by far the most common.

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2.2.4 IP
 Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Protocol (often shortened to IP) is the foremost set of rules for
communicating over the Internet, which essentially establishes how the
internet is able to function. It is usually combined with a number of other
protocols in order to communicate data and connect two hosts (computers)
together so they are able to share data between them, either privately or
publicly.

IP is responsible for the actual delivery of data, which is sent from one
computer to another via a series of stopping points called gateways. These
gateways recognize the data and send it on to a subsequent gateway, and so
on until the data arrives at its final intended destination. Data can get mixed
up and sent in the wrong order, but IP does not deal with this.

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[Link] IPv4
IPv4 is the most common type of IP address in use on the internet
today. Since IP addresses were first invented there has been several major
revisions to them, and IPv4 is the fourth of those overhauls. IP addresses use
Binary code in order to communicate on networks between computers, and
IPv4 uses what is known as 32Bit format as part of this.

This means that the total number of unique IP addresses using the IPv4
format is equal to 2^32 addresses, which is around four billion addresses.
Since each and every device that connects to the internet needs a unique IP
address, this means that only four billion devices can connect to the internet
in total. This is not ideal, since the internet and the amount of people using it
is always expanding and it is expected that the number will soon outnumber
four billion. Therefore, IP address systems are continually being updated and
refurbished to suit the growing needs of the world’s computer users and
potential future users.

[Link] IPv6
IPv6 is the newest and most recent type of IP address that has been
invented to use on the internet today. Because IPv4 only provides four billion
possible unique IP addresses, IPv6 was developed to expand this amount and
provide other, better updates to the service as well. IPv6 uses what is known
as a 128-Bit format, meaning that the total number of unique IP addresses
using the IPv6 format is equal to 2^128 addresses, approximately three
hundred and forty trillion trillion addresses.

This means that far more devices in the future can connect to the
internet with a unique address. IPv6 also offers users other benefits, such as
improved network capabilities and more secure connections between
computers. IPv6 has been around since mid-2012 and the changeover is still in
process, and will likely take several more years to complete. This is because it
takes time to lengthen the addresses of devices which already have IPv4,
however all new devices produced since that time which are capable of
connecting to the internet have embraced IPv6 as the industry standard and
been made with it preinstalled.

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2.2.5 Default Gateway
When information is transferred across networks, including across the
internet, it does not go straight from one point to another. Instead, it is sent
from one point to another to another until it finally reaches its destination.
These interim points are known as gateways, or sometimes nodes, and
without them it would be impossible to transfer information effectively. A
default gateway is the main entry and exit point for information on a network.

For example, on a home broadband network connecting to the internet,

the default gateway is the router in the home which transfers information
from the home network out into the internet. Sometimes a gateway can be
located at the service station of the company which provides a network’s
internet services – this is common when a network does not have its own
router, such as older dialup connections.

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 2.3 IOS Commands and Router
Configurations
2.3.1 What is IOS
Router IOS (Internetwork operating System) is the operating system by
which the router can be accessed and configured. But this operating system is
different from operating system that we have in our desktop.

IOS is a command line operating system to configure routers. Router IOS

is designed, coded, and binds to work with the routing protocols, so we can
use IOS to configure the routing protocols. Router IOS stores as bin file in the
flash memory of the router. We have to remember the commands to configure
the router for specific actions.

The Internetwork Operating System (IOS) is usually stored as a system

image within a router’s flash memory. The startup configuration file called
startup-config is stored in non-volatile RAM, and the actual operating
configuration of the router (its routing tables, queues, and so on) are stored in
ordinary RAM. Cisco routers can typically run in three different operating
environments:

2.3.2 Router Memory

A router contains 3 types of memory:

• Running-Config Memory

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• Startup-Config Memory
• Flash Memory

 Running-Config Memory
Running-Config memory stores the running configurations of the
router. It is volatile memory, which means it gets erased when the
router’s power is off. Running-Config memory is called VRAM (Volatile
Random Access Memory). It is similar to RAM in our laptops or desktop.

 Startup-Config Memory
Startup-config memory stores the saved configurations of the
router. Startup config memory is Non-Volatile Memory, which means it
can store the data of configurations in routers until it is deleted. It is
called the NVRAM (Non-Volatile Random-Access memory). It’s similar to
the hard disk in our desktops.

 Flash Memory
Flash memory is the memory of the router in which the
operating system of the router (i.e., router IOS) is stored. Router IOS
is [Link] file format (e.g., [Link]). It can be backed up to
another server or storage device.

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 2.4 Routing and Routing Protocols
2.4.1 Routing, Static Routing, Dynamic Routing :
What is static routing?
Static Routing is a type of routing which occurs when a router sends and
receives information using a manually configured entry system. This means
that the way in which the router chooses which path to send data down is
determined by a code which is entered manually in the routing table.

Static routes use fixed paths to transmit data, which means that when a
fault occurs, data will not automatically be rerouted unless the path is
repaired. Because of this, static routes are not always the best choice for a
complex network which is likely to encounter faults. It can however simplify
networks sometimes, as static routes never change or time out.

What is dynamic routing?

Dynamic Routing (also called Adaptive Routing) is another type of
routing which occurs when routers send and receive information using a
system which learns about the different destinations on the network and
decide at run time which is the best one to use. This means that the way in
which the router sends data changes depending on which is the best route to
use for that particular data, and for which sections of the network are working
correctly and can be reached easily.

This type of routing is often supported by software applications

connected to the router, as it is a more complex way of transmitting data and
requires extra computing support. It is beneficial for complex systems which
are expecting to encounter faults occasionally, since it takes into account
network and device failures and can work around them without constant need
for repair.

What is routing table?

A Routing Table is a set of rules used by routers to make decisions about
where and how to send data over a connected network. It stores information
about how networks and subnets can be reached. Both IP Routers and other

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routers use these tables, since all routers perform some sort of routing on the
network and need to transfer data across the network. The routing table
determines both how far away the destination IP address is that the data is
being sent to (known as the ‘next hop’), as well as how it is going to be sent.
This involves information about how efficient each possible path is, which
routes are available for access, and the interface that the device needs to use
to forward the data properly.

2.4.2 Default Route and Static Routes Configuration

 Static and Default Routes
Like in regular life, to reach to a destination, we need to know the route
to it, else we get lost, so is in the world of Networks. For the data or packet to
traverse to another location, it must know the route; else it gets lost /
dropped.
For Network devices to communicate they should be able to reach each
other and to do this you can use the following.
1. Directly Connected

2. Static Routing

3. Dynamic Routing

Directly Connected:
Directly connected devices are physically connected devices with each
other. These devices can see each other in their routing tables and
communicate. We must have the IP addresses configured on the interfaces; in
the routing table you will see the IP address of the directed connected
interface.
Static Routing:
This is the Routing where the route to a network is entered manually by
your network administrator. The administrator sees the network design and
accordingly decides to add routes for communication. Using the help of the
static route, the administrator tells the device what path it should take to
reach some other device. This is a tedious process if you network begins to
grow over 10 devices as the network administrator will have to enter these
routes for all the devices to communicate with each other.
Dynamic Routing:

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 This is a method in which we use the Dynamic routing protocols and it
is these protocols that perform some computations and decide a best path to
reach a destination. Here the network administrator role is to configure the
Dynamic routing protocol. Choosing the best path and changing path if any
failures etc. is taken care by the routing protocol dynamically. This eases of the
load of a network administrator.

We have different dynamic routing protocols like:

RIP: Routing Information Protocol
IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
EIGRP: Enhanced IGRP
OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

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 2.5 Switching
2.5.1 Switch Configuration
If we have to configure the switch and connect three PCs at the
Port F0/1, F0/2, and F0/3, we will take the Switch of 8 Ports. After
booting the Switch, the switch will have the prompt similar to a router.

Switch> enable
Switch# configure terminal
Switch (Config)# hostname Norman _Switch
Norman_Switch(config)# interface f0/1
Norman_Switch(config-if)# switchport mode access
Norman_Switch(config-if)# exit
Norman_Switch(config)# interface f0/2
Norman_Switch(config-if)# switchport mode access
Norman_Switch(config-if)# exit
Norman_Switch(config)# interface f0/3
Norman_Switch(config-if)# switchport mode access
Norman_Switch(config-if)# exit
Norman_Switch(config)# exit
Norman_Switch#
All the ports will be UP and all three PCs can ping each other, as they are
in a LAN.

 Switch Memory
Similar to a router, a switch also has three types of memory:
• Running-config, which stores the running-configuration Volatile
memory.

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• Startup-config, which stores the saved configuration. It is non-volatile
memory.
• Flash memory, in which the IOS is stored in a .bin file.

 Switch Security:
Port security
Consider a Switch that has two PCs Connected with the following
MAC Address:

Configureing the Switch interface with port security. If other PCs

are connected to it, the Port will be shut down. This means other PCs
can’t connect to the Switch.
Switch> enable
Switch# configure terminal
Switch(Config)# hostname Norman
Norman(Config)# interface range f0/1-2
Norman(Config-if)# switchport mode access
Norman(Config-if)#exit
Norman(Config)# interface f0/1
Norman(Config-if)# switchport port-security mac-address
0090.2B53.C7A9
Norman(Config-if)# switchport port-security violation shutdown

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Norman(Config-if)# exit
Norman(Config)# interface f0/2
Norman(Config-if)# switchport port-security mac-address
0001.427D.48AD
Norman(Config-if)# switchport port-security violation shutdown
Norman(Config-if)# exit
Now, if another PCpc connects to F0/1 or F0/2 of the switch, it will not
be able to connect.
These above ports will shut down.

 Creating Password:
These commands are similar to router commands.
Switch> enable
Switch# configure terminal
Switch(Config)# enable secret norman123
For Console
Switch(config)# line console 0
Switch(config-line)# password norcon123
Switch(config-line)# login
Switch(config-line)# exit For Telnet
Switch(config)# line vty 0 1
Switch(config-line)# password nortel123
Switch(config-line)# login
Switch(config-line)# exit
Switch(config)# service password-encryption
Switch(config)# do show running-config
Switch(config)# do write memory (for saving configurations)
Switch(config)# do show startup-config

2.5.2 VLAN

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  VLAN – VIRTUAL LAN
A VLAN is a Virtual LAN, which means it creates a LAN virtually
which cannot be seen physically but based on the operations and
functioning, you feel as if we have multiple LANs. some other concepts
to understand VLAN better.
1. Collision Domain

2. Broadcast Domain

A hub in a network operates as half-duplex that means it can

either send or receive traffic at a time. In such a case if we have two
devices that try to communicate simultaneously we have a collision.
(Only one device can communicate at a time). The ports on a hub belong
to same collision domain i.e. a physical segment where collision can
occur is called the collision domain.

4 computers connected to a Switch, have 4 collision domains, one for

each port. Thus simultaneous communication (full-duplex) is possible
without collisions. So with the use of switches we break the collision
domain, in effect reducing collisions.
Both Hubs and Switches belong to one broadcast domain, which
means that a broadcast or multicast is forwarded out each port of the
device. A logical segment of network in which a broadcast or multicast
propagates is called the broadcast domain.

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Configurable VLANs range from 2 – 1001
We need to assign individual switch ports to a VLAN. A VLAN can
have one or multiple ports. Only devices in same VLAN can
communicate with each other.

As per the above picture:

If you see we have logically divided one Physical Switch (Switch A)

to two logical switches. (Blue and Green VLANs operate as separate
switches)
Since devices in same VLAN can communicate, A-1 and A-2 and
communicate with each other and A-7 and A-8 can communicate with
one another.

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 Devices in Blue VLAN cannot communicate with VLAN Green,
because now there are two separate networks and need a Router to
communicate.
As we configure these VLANs manually on ports and hence called
Port-based (untagged) VLANs. We have to assign each port on a switch
to a VLAN.

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 CHAPTER-3

NEO ALPHAMETRIC
INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED -
Company Profile

44 | P a g e
 About NEO ALPHAMETRIC
INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED
NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED is a private limited
company and was incorporated on Oct 20, 201 5 in India. It is registered
at registrar of companies, ROC Hyderabad. Its registered address is Plot
No.9, Survey No.275, 279 Arunodaya Nagar, Hayathnagar, Rangareddi,
Hyderabad, Telangana, India, 500068. Its corporate identification
number is (CIN) U72200TG201 5PTC101312 and its current status is
Active.

Its industry classification as per MCA is software Publishing,

Consultancy and Supply [Software publishing includes production,
supply and documentation of ready-made (Non-Customized) Software,
Operating systems software, Business & other Applications software,
Computer games software for all platforms. Consultancy includes
Providing the best solution in the form of custom software after
analyzing the user's needs and problems. Custom software also includes
made-to-order software based on orders from specific users also,
included are writing of software of any kind following directives of the
users; software maintenance, webpage design].

 NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED's last Annual

General Meeting (AGM) was held on Sep 30, 2024 as per records
from Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA). NEO ALPHAMETRIC
INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED's authorized share capital is Rs.
31,000,000 and its paid-up capital is Rs. 31,000,000. The current
board of directors of NEOALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE
LIMITED consists of Rama Goud Biragoni, Pavankumar Chepuri,
Ajay Kumar Patha and Laxman Patha.
 As of Jan 2026, the authorized signatories of NEO
ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED include Rama Goud
Biragoni, Ajay Kumar Patha and Pavankumar Chepuri.
 NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED generated a
revenue of INR 5.41 Cr for the financial year ending on Mar 31,
2024, reflecting a I-year revenue CAGR of 13% and an EBITDA
CAGR of -1 1%.

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Financials of NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE
LIMITED

NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED generated a

revenue of 5.41 Cr for the financial year ending on Mar 31, 2024. The
revenue of NEO ALPHAMETRIC INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED has a
compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of 13% in the last 1 year.

46 | P a g e
 How NEO ALPHAMETRIC
INFOTECH PRIVATE LIMITED is
linked to "Study of Computer
Networking Fundamentals and
Configuration,"

1. Corporate Link to Networking Education:

Neo Alpha metric Infotech operates as a
specialized IT infrastructure and training provider.
The "Study of Computer Networking
Fundamentals and Configuration" refers to the
technical framework they implement at their TCS
iON Digital Zones and within their internal IT
consultancy services.

2. Networking Fundamentals Implemented:

According to their operational standards, the
company focuses on four core networking elements
to maintain their high-security exam centers.

3. Hardware Integration:
Deployment of managed switches, routers,
and firewalls to handle high density traffic
during digital assessments.

4. Configuration and Security Standards:

The "Configuration" aspect of their study
emphasizes maintaining a "Locked Down" environment
required for TCS iON centers:

47 | P a g e
  IP Addressing: Systematic IP address allocation
across devices to prevent conflicts during large-
scale testing.
 Network Security Fundamentals: Implementing
access restrictions and perimeter security to
protect data integrity and prevent unauthorized
access.
 VLAN Management: Utilizing Virtual LANs (VLANs)
to segment guest traffic from critical examination
data.

5. Key Operational Identifiers Primary Center:

Located in Hayathnagar, Hyderabad, serving as
a hub for both hardware deployment and
networking training.
Service Scope: They provide custom software
maintenance and IT consultancy, often involving the
setup of Local Area Networks (LANs) for corporate
and educational clients.

Protocol Stacks: Utilization of the TCP/IP protocol

suite to ensure standardized communication between
independent client nodes and central servers. Network
Layering: Strict adherence to Layered Architecture (L1
to L4):
L1 (Physical): High-speed cabling and Wi-Fi connectivity.
L2 (Data Link): Advanced MAC-based switching for local
traffic management.
L3 (Network): Robust IP routing to ensure data reaches
the correct destination.

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 Historical and operational
milestones:
1. Historical Timeline & Foundation –

 Establishment (2015):
The company was incorporated on October20,
2015, by founders Rama Goud Biragoni and Ajay Kumar
Patha. The initial focus was on providing custom
software solutions and web development for local
businesses in Hyderabad.
 Infrastructure Shift (2016-2017):
Shortly after incorporation, the company pivoted
toward IT Infrastructure Management. This period
marked the beginning of their partnership with TCS iON,
transforming their Hayathnagar facility into a "Digital
Zone."
 Expansion (2018-Present):
Between 2018 and 2022, the company expanded its
hardware capacity. According to their financial records,
they secured significant funding to upgrade their
networking hardware to support massive, simultaneous
computer-based tests (CBTs).
2. Core History of "Study & Configuration" Core Operations
In the context of their "Networking Fundamentals"
documentation:
The company's history is categorized by the
specific technical systems they deployed:
 Phase 1:
Basic LAN Setup Initially, the company's history
focused on simple Peer-to-Peer networking. They
utilized basic Star Topologies to connect
workstations to a central server for data processing.

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  Phase 2:
Transition to Client-Server Architecture As they
began hosting national-level exams (GATE, JEE, Bank
PO), their history shifted to a robust Client Server
Model. This required a fundamental change in their
"Configuration" history— moving from unmanaged
switches to managed networking layers to ensure
zero downtime.

 Phase 3:
Security & IP Configuration History The company
historically moved away from dynamic IP allocation
(DHCP) for critical tasks, adopting a Static IP
Configuration history for all nodes in their Digital
Zones to ensure traceability and security during
high-stakes exams.

3. Key Technical Milestones (Based on Project Content):

The "Study of Computer Networking" within this
company typically highlights the following historical
hardware implementations: Period Networking Focus
Hardware/Protocol implemented 2015-2016 1 nitiaI
connectivity standard Cat5 cabling, unmanaged Hubs/
Switches. 2017-2019 High Density Networking Cat6/
Cat6 a cabling, implementation of VLANs to separate
traffic 2020 Present Advanced Security integration of
Hardware Firewalls and Layer 3 Switching for better
routing.

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 Summary of Organizational Identity
Historically
Neo Alpha metric Infotech has functioned as a
bridge between Theoretical Networking Concepts and
Practical Large-Scale Application.
 The "Study" component:
Historically used to train staff and interns on the OSI
Model, specifically focusing on the Physical Layer (cabling) and
Network Layer (IP addressing).
 The "Configuration" component:
Historically documented through their "Standard
Operating Procedures" (SOPs) for setting up examination
nodes that are isolated from the public internet.

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 CHAPTER-4

Presentation of Data Analysis and

Interpretation.

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 4.1 Presentation of Data Analysis and
Interpretation.
This chapter shows the presentation and analysis of primary data
collected through a survey among 41 respondents by the means of
questionnaire to get a sample opinion of customers who patronize the
services of E-commerce. And on the basis of the answers received from
annexed questionnaire the following analysis has been made and the
final data interpretation is done.

4.1.1 GENDER-WISE RRSPONDENTS:

TABLE – 1
Sr. no. GENDER NO. of respondents %of respondents
1 FEMALE 13 31.7%
2 MALE 28 68.3%
Total 41

Interpretation:
The first question is designed to find out the gender of the
respondents, whose respondents are taken as sample to conduct this project
work. Tehe above table and graph reveals the number of male and female
respondents, and by analyzing the same conclude the following: -
68.3% of respondents are males, with the female constituting 31.7%.
That is, male respondents are higher than that of female be 6.6%
respondents. Thus, we can say that majority of the respondents are male.

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 4.1.2 AGE-WISE RRSPONDENTS:
TABLE – 2

Sr. no. AGE NO. of respondents %of respondents

1 18-25 35 31.7%
2 26-35 4 68.3%
36-45 1
45+ 1
Total 41 100%

Interpretation:
Here the data has been presented to show the age group of
different respondents; by analyzing the above table and graph, we can
interpret the following:
o 85.4% of the respondents belong to the age group of below
25.
o 9.8% of the respondents belong to the age group of
between 25-35.
o 2.4% of the respondents belong to the age group of 36-45
and 46 +
It shows that the overall respondents belong to the age group of 18-25.

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 4.1.3 AGE-WISE RRSPONDENTS:
TABLE – 3

NO. of %of
Sr. no. Current Occupation
respondents respondents
1 Junior network engineer 4 9.76%
2 Trainee 1 2.44%
3 Desktop support 1 2.44%
4 Student 31 75.61%
5 Other 4 9.76%
Total 41

Interpretation:
Here the data has been according to the occupation:
o Junior Network Engineer is about 9.8%.
o Students are about 75.6% which is the highest of all the
respondents.

 4.1.4 WORK EXPERIENCE-WISE RESPONDENTS:

 TABLE – 4

A Experience Level NO. of respondents %of respondents

1 0–1 year 34 82.9%
2 1–2 years 2 4.9%
3 2–4 years 2 2.44%
4 4+ years 3 7.3%
Total 41

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  Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey's 41
respondents (82.9%) are only between 0 and 1 year of experience in
networking. A small number of respondents (7.3 %) are 4+ years
experience in networking and other have 1 to 4 years of experience.

 4.1.5 MODE OF AWARENESS USED PRIMARILY:

 TABLE – 5
Sr. no. MODE OF AWARENESS NO. of respondents %of respondents

1 Academic Degree 19 46.3%

2 Online Certifications 7 17.1%
3 On the job Training 2 4.9%
4 Self-study 13 31.7%
Total 41

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  Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents
(46.3%) gain the awareness about networking through Academic
Degree. A small number of respondents (31.7 %) know about
networking through self-study and 17.1% gain knowledge about
networking through online certification while others through on job
training.

 4.1.6 TIME OF USE OF NETWORKING IN DAILY LIFE:

 TABLE – 6

Sr. no. Use of networking NO. of respondents %of respondents

1 Daily 22 53.7%
2 weekly 10 14.6%
3 Rarely 6 24.4%
4 Never 3 7.3%
Total 41

 Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents
(53.7%) use the network daily. Next largest number of respondents
(24.4%) use network weekly and 14.6% respondents use network rarely,
while 7.3% of respondents never use network.

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  4.1.7 RATING OF AWARENESS OF CISCO THREE LAYER
HIERARCHICAL MODEL:
 TABLE – 7
AWARENESS OF CISCO THREE
Sr. no. NO. of respondents %of respondents
LAYER HIERARCHICAL MODEL
1 Very less 12 29.3%
2 Less 4 9.8%
3 Manageable 12 29.3%
4 Good enough 4 9.8%
5 Very well 9 22%
Total 41

 Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents
(29.3%) are very less and manageably aware about Cisco Three Layer
Hierarchical Model. Next largest number of respondents (22%) are less
aware about Cisco Three Layer Hierarchical Model, while 9.8% of
respondents are good enough or very well aware about Cisco Three
Layer Hierarchical Model.

 4.1.8 BETTER SUBSTITUTE FOR NETWORKING:

 TABLE – 8
Sr. no. Substitute for network NO. of respondents %of respondents
1 Cloud Networking 22 53.7%
Software Defined
2 10 14.6%
networking
3 Virtual Private Networks 6 24.4%
Total 41

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  Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents
(56.1%) suggest Cloud Networking as substitute of networking. Next
largest number of respondents (34.1%) suggest Software Defined
networking, while 9.8% of respondents suggest Virtual Private Networks
as substitute of networking.

 4.1.9 GROWTH POTENTIAL:

 TABLE – 9

Sr. no. Substitute for network NO. of respondents %of respondents

1 Yes 27 65.9%
2 No 11 7.3%
3 May be 3 26.8%
Total 41

 Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents
(65.9%) thinks that networking has potential to grow. Next largest
number of respondents (26.8%) can’t say about the potential of
network. But 7.3% respondents thinks that networking does not has
potential to grow.

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  4.1.10 RESPONSIBLE FACTOR FOR NON-ACCESSIBILITY OF
COMPUTER:
 TABLE – 10
Sr. no. Substitute for network NO. of respondents %of respondents
1 Lack of awareness 15 34.1%
2 Lack of security 12 29.3%
3 Lack of knowledge 14 36.6%
Total 41

 Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents
(65.9%) thinks that Lack of awareness is Responsible Factor for Non-
Accessibility of Computer networking. Next largest number of
respondents (34.1%) thinks that Lack of knowledge is Responsible Factor
for Non-Accessibility of Computer networking. While 29.3% respondents
thinks that Lack of security is Responsible Factor for Non-Accessibility of
Computer networking.

 4.1.11 DOES CURRENT SUTUATION MADE LIFE EASIER? :

 TABLE – 11

Sr. no. Responses NO. of respondents %of respondents

1 Yes 27 65.9%
2 No 2 4.9%
3 May be 9 22%
4 Can’t say 3 7.3%
Total 41

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  Interpretation:
Based on the chart, the vast majority of the survey’s respondents
(65.9%) thinks that networking made life easier. Next largest number of
respondents (22%) doubts whether networking made life easy or not.
But 7.3% respondents can’t say about the usefulness of network in day-
to-day life. While 4.9% respondents thinks that networking does not
make life easier.

 4.1.12 SATISFACTION LEVEL FOR CURRENT NETWORKING

STATUS:
 TABLE – 12

Sr. no. Responses NO. of respondents %of respondents

1 Completely 9 22%
2 Partially 10 24.4%
3 Ok-ok 16 39%
4 Not much 4 9.8%
5 Not at all 2 4.9%
Total 41

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 CHAPTER- 5
Findings, suggestions & Conclusion

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 Findings
After studying the topics covered in this networking course, the
following findings were observed:

1. Strong Foundation in Networking Basics

The course provides a clear understanding of fundamental
concepts such as the OSI model, Ethernet, network devices, and
topology.

2. Importance of TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP protocol suite plays a critical role in modern
networking. Concepts like IP addressing, subnetting, IPv4, and IPv6 are
essential for network communication.

3. Practical Importance of Cisco Technologies

The inclusion of the three-layer hierarchy model and IOS configuration
highlights the practical relevance of technologies developed by Cisco
Systems in real-world networking environments.

4. Routing and Switching as Core Skills

Routing (static and dynamic) and switching (VLAN configuration)
are essential for network design, traffic management, and security.
5.

6. Need for Hands-On Practice

Networking concepts become clearer and more effective when
supported with practical configuration and lab work.

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 Suggestions
Based on the study of this course, the following suggestions are
recommended:

1. Increase Practical Lab Sessions

More hands-on configuration practice using routers and switches
will strengthen understanding.

2. Use Network Simulation Tools

Practice with tools like Packet Tracer or GNS3 to simulate real
networking environments.

3. Include Advanced Topics

Future improvements may include:
• Network security basics
• Firewall configuration
• Wireless networking
• Cloud networking fundamentals

4. Regular Assessments and Case Studies

Including real-world case studies will improve problem-solving
skills.

5. Encourage Certification Preparation

This syllabus aligns well with entry-level certifications like CCNA,
so structured preparation can be beneficial.

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 Conclusion
In conclusion, this networking course provides a
comprehensive foundation in computer networking concepts. It
covers essential topics such as Ethernet technologies, the OSI
model, TCP/IP protocols, routing, switching, and VLAN
configuration.
Understanding these concepts is crucial for building,
managing, and troubleshooting modern computer networks.
The inclusion of practical configuration topics, especially
related to Cisco networking devices, makes the course industry-
relevant and career-oriented.
Overall, this course serves as a strong base for students
who wish to pursue advanced networking studies or
professional certifications in networking.

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