CHAPTER 2

HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Class XII Biology | NCERT Rationalised 2023-24 | Super-Detailed Notes

■ Chapter Overview
§ Topic Key Focus

2.1 The Male Reproductive System Testes, ducts, glands, penis

Ovaries, oviducts, uterus, external genitalia, mammary

2.2 The Female Reproductive System glands

2.3 Gametogenesis Spermatogenesis & Oogenesis

2.4 Menstrual Cycle Phases, hormonal regulation

2.5 Fertilisation & Implantation Site, process, blastocyst

2.6 Pregnancy & Embryonic Development Placenta, germ layers, milestones

2.7 Parturition & Lactation Delivery mechanism, colostrum

2.1 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Located in the pelvic region. Consists of: pair of testes, accessory ducts, accessory glands, and external
genitalia.

A. Testes
The testes are the primary male sex organs responsible for producing sperms and male sex hormones
(androgens).

■ Situated outside the abdominal cavity in a pouch called the SCROTUM.

■ Scrotum maintains temperature 2–2.5°C LOWER than internal body temperature — essential for
spermatogenesis.

■ Each testis: oval, ~4–5 cm long, ~2–3 cm wide, covered by a dense fibrous covering.

■ Each testis has ~250 compartments called TESTICULAR LOBULES.

■ Each lobule contains 1–3 highly coiled SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES — site of sperm production.

Cells lining the seminiferous tubules:

Cell Type Function

Male Germ Cells (Spermatogonia) Undergo meiotic divisions → sperm formation (spermatogenesis)

Sertoli Cells Provide nutrition to developing germ cells; secrete factors for
spermiogenesis

Leydig Cells (interstitial cells, Synthesise & secrete ANDROGENS (testosterone); maintain
outside tubules) accessory duct function

B. Male Accessory Ducts (in order of sperm transport)

<b>Duct</b> <b>Location / Feature</b>

Seminiferous tubules → Rete testis Inside testis; sperms first enter rete testis

Rete testis → Vasa efferentia Multiple small ducts leaving the testis

Vasa efferentia → Epididymis Along posterior surface of testis; site of sperm maturation & storage

Epididymis → Vas deferens Ascends to abdomen, loops over urinary bladder

Vas deferens + duct of seminal vesicle → Ejaculatory

Opens
duct into urethra

Urethra Originates from urinary bladder; extends through penis; opens at urethral meatus

C. Male Accessory Glands

Gland Secretion / Function

Paired Seminal Vesicles Seminal plasma — rich in fructose (energy for sperm), calcium,
enzymes

Prostate Gland (single) Contributes to seminal plasma; provides enzymes

Gland Secretion / Function

Paired Bulbourethral Glands Lubrication of the penis before ejaculation

(Cowper's glands)

Semen = seminal plasma + sperms. Functions of accessory ducts & glands are maintained by androgens.

D. External Genitalia — Penis

■ Penis: made of special erectile tissue → allows erection for insemination.

■ Glans penis: enlarged distal end covered by a loose fold of skin called FORESKIN (prepuce).

■ Urethral meatus: external opening of urethra at the tip of glans penis.

2.2 THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Located in the pelvic region. Consists of: pair of ovaries, pair of oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina, external
genitalia, and pair of mammary glands.

A. Ovaries — Primary Sex Organs

■ One on each side of the lower abdomen; ~2–4 cm in length.

■ Connected to pelvic wall and uterus by LIGAMENTS.

■ Covered by a thin epithelium enclosing the OVARIAN STROMA.

■ Stroma divided into: PERIPHERAL CORTEX (outer) and INNER MEDULLA.

■ Functions: (i) Produce female gamete (OVUM). (ii) Secrete ovarian steroid hormones (estrogen,
progesterone).

B. Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes)

Region Description

Infundibulum Funnel-shaped; closest to ovary; edges have finger-like FIMBRIAE

that collect ovum after ovulation

Ampulla Wider region; SITE OF FERTILISATION

Isthmus Last narrow part; joins the uterus

Each fallopian tube is ~10–12 cm long.

C. Uterus (Womb)
■ Single, inverted pear-shaped organ supported by ligaments attached to pelvic wall.

■ Opens into vagina through a narrow CERVIX; cavity of cervix = CERVICAL CANAL.

■ Cervical canal + vagina = BIRTH CANAL.

Three layers of the uterine wall:

Layer Description & Role

Perimetrium (outermost) Thin, external membranous layer

Myometrium (middle) Thick smooth muscle layer; exhibits strong contraction during delivery

Endometrium (innermost) Glandular layer lining uterine cavity; undergoes cyclical changes in
menstrual cycle; implantation occurs here

D. Female External Genitalia

Structure Description

Mons pubis Cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair

Labia majora Fleshy folds extending down from mons pubis; surround vaginal
opening
Structure Description

Labia minora Paired folds of tissue under labia majora

Hymen Membrane partially covering vaginal opening; NOT a reliable indicator

of virginity

Clitoris Tiny finger-like structure at upper junction of two labia minora, above
urethral opening

E. Mammary Glands
■ Paired structures (breasts) with glandular tissue + variable fat.

■ Each breast: 15–20 MAMMARY LOBES containing clusters of cells called ALVEOLI.

■ Alveoli cells secrete milk → stored in lumens of alveoli.

■ Alveoli → Mammary tubules → Mammary duct → Mammary ampulla → Lactiferous duct (milk
expressed here).
 2.3 GAMETOGENESIS

The process of formation of gametes (sperms & ovum) by the primary sex organs is called gametogenesis.

A. SPERMATOGENESIS
Formation of sperms from spermatogonia (immature male germ cells) within seminiferous tubules. Begins at
puberty.

Step-by-step process:
<b>Step</b>
<b>Event</b> <b>Ploidy / Chromosomes</b>

1 Spermatogonia (on inner wall of seminiferous tubule) multiply by MITOSIS Diploid — 46 chr

2 Some spermatogonia → PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTES Diploid — 46 chr

3 Primary spermatocyte undergoes MEIOSIS I (reduction division) → 2 SECONDARY

HaploidSPERMATOCYTES
— 23 chr each

4 Secondary spermatocytes undergo MEIOSIS II → 4 SPERMATIDS (equal, haploid)

Haploid — 23 chr each

5 Spermatids transform into SPERMATOZOA by SPERMIOGENESIS Haploid — 23 chr

6 Sperm heads embed in Sertoli cells; released by SPERMIATION —

Hormonal Regulation of Spermatogenesis:

Hormone Source → Action

GnRH (Gonadotropin Releasing Hypothalamus → stimulates anterior pituitary to release LH & FSH
Hormone)

LH (Luteinising Hormone) Anterior pituitary → acts on Leydig cells → stimulates androgen

synthesis

FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) Anterior pituitary → acts on Sertoli cells → stimulates factors for
spermiogenesis

Androgens (Testosterone) Leydig cells → stimulate spermatogenesis

Structure of a Sperm:
<b>Part</b> <b>Structure / Composition</b> <b>Function</b>

Head Elongated haploid nucleus; covered anteriorly by ACROSOME

Acrosome:
cap contains hydrolytic enzymes for penetrating zona p

Neck Short connecting region between head and middle pieceConnects head to rest of sperm

Middle piece Contains numerous MITOCHONDRIA arranged spirally Provides energy (ATP) for tail movement — essential for moti

Tail Long flagellum; plasma membrane envelops entire sperm

Propulsion / motility for fertilisation

■ Normal fertility: ≥60% sperms with normal shape & size + ≥40% with vigorous motility.

■ Human male ejaculates ~200–300 million sperms per coitus.

B. OOGENESIS
Formation of a mature female gamete (ovum) from oogonia. Markedly different from spermatogenesis —
begins in fetal life.
<b>Stage</b> <b>Event</b> <b>When?</b>

Oogonia (2n) Gamete mother cells formed within fetal ovary (couple of million)Embryonic development (fetal life)

Primary Oocytes (2n) Oogonia enter Prophase I of meiosis and get arrested; surrounded
Fetal
by life
granulosa
— arrested → PRIMARY
cells until puberty FOLLICL

Follicular Development Many follicles degenerate; at puberty ~60,000–80,000 primary follicles

Birth toremain
puberty
per
/ puberty
ovary; primary
onwards→ SECOND

Secondary Oocyte (n) + 1stPrimary oocyte completes MEIOSIS I (unequal) → large secondary
polar body Justoocyte
before+ovulation
tiny first polar
(in tertiary
[Link])
Secondary

Ovulation Graafian follicle ruptures → releases secondary oocyte (ovum) from

~14th
ovary
day of menstrual cycle (triggered by L

Ootid (n) + 2nd polar body Secondary oocyte completes MEIOSIS II only after fertilisation byAfter
sperm → ootid + 2nd polar body
fertilisation

Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis — Key Differences:

Feature Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

Starts At puberty In fetal life

Gametes produced from 1 4 equal spermatozoa 1 ovum + 3 polar bodies (unequal)

primary cell

Division completion Both meiotic divisions complete Meiosis II completes only after
before release fertilisation

Continues Throughout life Stops at menopause (~50 years)

Location Seminiferous tubules Ovarian follicles

 2.4 MENSTRUAL CYCLE

■ Reproductive cycle in female PRIMATES (monkeys, apes, humans).

■ Average duration: ~28–29 days. One ovum released per cycle.

■ MENARCHE: first menstruation at puberty. MENOPAUSE: cessation ~50 years of age.

■ Cyclic menstruation = indicator of normal reproductive phase.

Phases of the Menstrual Cycle:

<b>Phase</b> <b>Days</b><b>Ovary</b> <b>Uterus (Endometrium)</b> <b>Hormones</b>

<b>Menstrual Phase</b>
Day 1–5 Regressing corpus luteum Endometrium breaks down; menstrual
Lowflow
estrogen
(blood +&tissue)
progesterone;
via vagina
LH & FSH

<b>Follicular Phase</b>Day Primary follicle → Graafian follicle

(Proliferative)
6–13 Endometrium
development
regenerates / proliferates
FSH & LH rise; estrogen rises

<b>Ovulatory Phase</b>
Day ~14 LH surge → Graafian follicle Endometrium
ruptures → OVULATION
well-developed LH surge (peak); estrogen peak

Day 15–28 Ruptured follicle → CORPUSEndometrium

<b>Luteal Phase</b> (Secretory) LUTEUM forms;
maintained
if no fertilisation,
for implantation;
CLProgesterone
degenerates
degenerates
high if(from
no fertilisation
CL); estrogen m

■ Menstruation occurs ONLY if the released ovum is NOT fertilised.

■ Absence of menstruation can indicate pregnancy (but also stress, poor health).

■ During pregnancy: all menstrual cycle events stop; corpus luteum persists.

■ Corpus luteum degenerates → progesterone falls → endometrium breaks down → new cycle
begins.
 2.5 FERTILISATION AND IMPLANTATION

A. Transport & Fertilisation

Step Detail

1. Insemination During copulation, semen released by penis into vagina

2. Sperm transport Motile sperms swim through cervix → uterus → AMPULLARY region
of fallopian tube

3. Ovum transport Ovulated secondary oocyte is also carried to ampullary region

4. Site of fertilisation AMPULLARY REGION of fallopian tube

5. Zona pellucida contact Sperm contacts zona pellucida → membrane changes block
polyspermy (only 1 sperm fertilises)

6. Acrosome reaction Acrosomal enzymes digest zona pellucida + plasma membrane →

sperm enters ovum cytoplasm

7. Meiosis II completion Sperm entry induces completion of meiosis II of secondary oocyte →

ootid + 2nd polar body

8. Syngamy Haploid nuclei of sperm and ovum fuse → DIPLOID ZYGOTE (46
chromosomes)

Sex Determination:
Chromosome in sperm Result

X-bearing sperm + X ovum XX → FEMALE baby

Y-bearing sperm + X ovum XY → MALE baby

50% sperms carry X, 50% carry Y → sex of baby is determined by the FATHER, not the mother.

B. Cleavage and Implantation

<b>Stage</b> <b>Description</b>

Zygote Moves through isthmus of oviduct (CLEAVAGE)

2→4→8→16 cells (blastomeres)

Mitotic divisions as zygote moves toward uterus

Morula Embryo with 8–16 blastomeres; continues dividing

Blastocyst Formed from morula as it moves into uterus. Has: TROPHOBLAST (outer layer) + INNER CELL MASS (a

Implantation Trophoblast attaches to endometrium → uterine cells divide rapidly & cover blastocyst → blastocyst emb
2.6 PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

A. Placenta
■ After implantation, CHORIONIC VILLI appear on trophoblast → surrounded by uterine tissue and
maternal blood.

■ Chorionic villi + uterine tissue become interdigitated → form PLACENTA.

■ Placenta = structural & functional unit between foetus and maternal body.

■ Connected to embryo by UMBILICAL CORD.

Functions of Placenta:
Function Detail

Nutrition & Gas Exchange Supplies O2 and nutrients to embryo; removes CO2 and waste

Endocrine function Produces hCG, hPL, estrogens, progestogens; later relaxin (secreted
by ovary)

Hormone note hCG, hPL and relaxin produced ONLY during pregnancy; other
hormones (estrogen, progesterone, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine) also
increase several-fold

B. Germ Layers (from inner cell mass)

Germ Layer Gives Rise To

Ectoderm (outer) Skin, nervous system

Endoderm (inner) Lining of gut, respiratory tract, internal organs

Mesoderm (middle, appears Muscles, skeleton, circulatory system, connective tissue

between ecto & endo)

Stem cells (in inner cell mass) Potency to give rise to ALL tissues and organs

C. Embryonic Development Milestones:

<b>Month / Week</b> <b>Development</b>

End of 1st month Embryo's HEART formed; first heartbeat detectable by stethoscope

End of 2nd month LIMBS and DIGITS develop

End of 12 weeks (1st trimester) Most major organ systems formed; limbs and EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGANS well-deve

5th month First MOVEMENTS of foetus; HAIR appears on head

End of 24 weeks (end of 2nd trimester) Body covered with fine hair; EYELIDS separate; EYELASHES formed

End of 9 months Foetus fully developed; ready for delivery

2.7 PARTURITION AND LACTATION

A. Parturition (Childbirth)
■ GESTATION PERIOD: average ~9 months of human pregnancy.

■ PARTURITION: process of delivery of the foetus.

Mechanism — Neuroendocrine Control:

Step Event

1 Fully developed foetus + placenta → signals initiate mild uterine

contractions: FOETAL EJECTION REFLEX

2 Foetal ejection reflex → triggers release of OXYTOCIN from maternal

pituitary

3 Oxytocin → stronger uterine muscle contractions

4 Stronger contractions → more oxytocin released (positive feedback

loop)

5 Progressively stronger contractions → expulsion of baby through birth

canal (cervix + vagina)

6 After baby is delivered → PLACENTA also expelled

Doctors inject oxytocin (or synthetic analogues like pitocin) to induce delivery.

B. Lactation
■ Mammary glands differentiate during pregnancy and begin producing milk towards the END OF
PREGNANCY.

■ Process: LACTATION — helps mother feed the newborn.

■ COLOSTRUM: milk produced in the initial few days of lactation.

■ Colostrum is rich in ANTIBODIES (IgA) — essential for developing immunity in newborns.

■ Breast-feeding during initial period is strongly recommended by doctors.

■ Prolactin (from anterior pituitary) stimulates milk production; Oxytocin stimulates milk ejection.
QUICK REVISION — KEY TERMS & DEFINITIONS

Spermatogenesis Formation of sperms from spermatogonia; begins at puberty in

seminiferous tubules

Spermiogenesis Transformation of spermatids into spermatozoa

Spermiation Release of sperms from Sertoli cells into lumen of seminiferous tubules

Oogenesis Formation of mature female gamete (ovum) from oogonia

Ovulation Release of secondary oocyte from Graafian follicle; induced by LH surge

Fertilisation Fusion of sperm and ovum → diploid zygote; occurs in ampullary region

Cleavage Mitotic division of zygote as it moves through isthmus toward uterus

Morula Solid ball of 8–16 blastomeres

Blastocyst Hollow structure with trophoblast and inner cell mass; gets implanted

Implantation Embedding of blastocyst in endometrium of uterus → leads to pregnancy

Placenta Structural & functional unit between embryo and maternal body; formed
from chorionic villi + uterine tissue

Menarche First menstruation at puberty

Menopause Cessation of menstrual cycles at ~50 years

LH surge Rapid peak of LH on ~14th day → triggers ovulation

Corpus luteum Remains of ruptured Graafian follicle; secretes progesterone to maintain

endometrium

Colostrum First milk produced after delivery; rich in antibodies (IgA)

Foetal ejection reflex Mild uterine contractions initiated by signals from fully developed foetus &
placenta

Androgens Male sex hormones (e.g., testosterone) secreted by Leydig cells

Acrosome Cap on sperm head; contains hydrolytic enzymes for penetrating zona
pellucida

Zona pellucida Membrane surrounding secondary oocyte; formed before ovulation

hCG Human Chorionic Gonadotropin; produced only during pregnancy; basis

of pregnancy test

hPL Human Placental Lactogen; produced during pregnancy by placenta

Relaxin Hormone secreted by ovary in later phase of pregnancy; relaxes pelvic

ligaments

GnRH Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone; hypothalamic hormone initiating

spermatogenesis at puberty
 EXERCISE ANSWERS (Q1 Fill in the Blanks)

(a) Humans reproduce sexually

(b) Humans are viviparous

(c) Fertilisation is internal in humans

(d) Male and female gametes are haploid

(e) Zygote is diploid

(f) Release of ovum from mature follicle = Ovulation

(g) Ovulation induced by hormone LH (Luteinising Hormone)

(h) Fusion of male and female gametes = Fertilisation

(i) Fertilisation takes place in ampullary region of fallopian tube

(j) Zygote divides to form blastocyst which implants in uterus

(k) Vascular connection between foetus and Umbilical cord / Placenta

uterus =

Q16. True / False Answers:

(a) Androgens produced by Sertoli cells FALSE — produced by LEYDIG cells

(b) Spermatozoa get nutrition from Sertoli cells TRUE

(c) Leydig cells found in ovary FALSE — found in interstitial spaces of testis

(d) Leydig cells synthesise androgens TRUE

(e) Oogenesis takes place in corpus luteum FALSE — occurs in ovarian follicles

(f) Menstrual cycle ceases during pregnancy TRUE

(g) Presence/absence of hymen not reliable TRUE

indicator of virginity

IMPORTANT SHORT / LONG ANSWER GUIDE

Q: Why is the scrotum outside the body?

To maintain temperature 2–2.5°C lower than internal body temperature, which is necessary for
spermatogenesis.

Q: Why is sex determined by the father?

All ova carry the X chromosome. Sperms carry either X or Y. If X-sperm fertilises → XX (female); if Y-sperm
→ XY (male). Hence sex depends on sperm (father).

Q: Why doesn't fertilisation always follow copulation?

Fertilisation requires simultaneous presence of both ovum and sperm in the ampullary region. If timings don't
match, fertilisation doesn't occur.

Q: What is the role of progesterone after ovulation?

Corpus luteum secretes progesterone which maintains the endometrium — essential for implantation and
early pregnancy. Without fertilisation, CL degenerates → progesterone falls → menstruation.

Q: Why is colostrum important?

Colostrum contains maternal antibodies (especially IgA) that provide passive immunity to the newborn,
essential before the baby's own immune system matures.

Q: What is the role of hCG in pregnancy detection?

hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is produced only after implantation. Pregnancy tests detect hCG in
urine or blood.

Q: Identical vs fraternal twins — how many eggs released?

Identical twins: 1 egg released (1 zygote divides into 2). Fraternal twins: 2 eggs released and fertilised by 2
different sperms.

Notes prepared from NCERT Class XII Biology Chapter 2 — Human Reproduction (Rationalised 2023-24). For exam preparation,
always cross-reference with official NCERT textbook and your teacher's guidance.