Biology 261 (exam 04) : Class 31 (1st class of exam 04) - Wednesday - 03-31-10

Essentials of Immunology
(Chapter 29)

The defense mechanisms in our body are 1. innate = born with it

divided into 2 broad categories. What are 2. adapted = acquired
they and what do they mean?
Which of these two categories is very 1. adapted
specific? General (or non specific)? 2. innate (has 1st line of defense and
2nd line of defense mechanisms)
The active ability of an organism to resist Immunity
infection is known as what?
The 1st line of defense is a subgroup of 1. innate
what defense mechanism? What are 2 2. 1st line of defense examples:
examples of 1st line defenses? What are a. Skin
some examples of 2nd line of defense b. Mucous membranes
nd
mechanisms? 3. 2 line of defense examples:
a. phagocytosis
b. inflammation
c. complement system
What is it about skin that makes it a 1st line 1. Skin:
of defense? a. normal flora provides
physical barrier that
prevents pathogen from
colonizing (= growth)
b. in tact = no breaks (breaks
provide place for pathogen
to get in to cause infection)
c. low pH
What does phagocytosis mean? What line 1. cell eating
of defense is this? What types of cells 2. 2nd line of defense in the innate
perform phagocytosis (are phagocytic)? defense mechanism system (1st line
of defense is skin and mucous
membranes)
3. Phagocytic cells include:
a. macrophages
b. neutrophils
c. dendritic cells
What is another name for neutrophils? 1. PMN (polymorphonuclear
Why is it called this? neutrophil)
2. have 3 or more lobes to nucleus

TIP: ‘Phil’ refers to the fact that these cells

undergo phagocytosis. This is seen under
magnification as granules.
Where are macrophages found? In the tissue

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What is a monocyte? Same as a macrophage but found in the
blood.
What type of cell is the most abundant Neutrophil (aka PMN)
WBC in humans?
How do we know something is inflamed 1. swelling, redness, heat
(inflammation)? What is happening when 2. body is trying to fight off infection
inflammation occurs?
A protein in the blood (or serum) that is complement
responsible for lysing cells is called a
what?
What is the difference between 1. macrophages = found in tissue
macrophages and monocytes? 2. monocytes = found in blood
When an antibody is made against a cell, complement
what binds to that cell to allow holes to be
made in cell wall to kill it?
What two systems work together to help Innate and Adapted systems
protect us from pathogens?
The adapted defense system is composed of 1. Humoral immunity
2 types of immunity. What are they? 2. Cell-Mediated immunity
What does ‘humoral immunity’ always 1. antibodies
refer to? What are these made by? 2. B cells
What does ‘cell-mediated immunity’ 1. T cells
always refer to? What does ‘Humoral 2. B cells
immunity’ always refer to?
B cells and T cells are what? lymphocytes
What is serum? Serum includes the portion of blood that is
neither RBC’s nor clotting factors + AB

WEBSITE ANIMATION:

Host Defenses: The Big Picture – 7:22

[Link]

Host defenses consist of 2 categories. 1. Innate (aka ‘non-specific’ or

What are they? ‘general’)
2. adaptive (aka ‘specific’)
The human body has many innate defenses. 1. skin + mucous bodies
The 1st line of defense is what? What other 2. 2nd line of defense which includes:
types of innate defenses does our body a. phagocytosis
have? b. inflammation
c. complement system
We have 2 main divisions of adapted 1. They are:
defense. What are they? _____ presenting a. Humoral and
cells aid in the activation of these defenses. b. Cell-mediated immunity
2. Antigen
2
Which type of immune response consists of 1. Humoral immunity
the activity of B cells? What do B cells 2. Antibodies
produce?
What type of defense is used to fight 1. Cell-mediated immunity / cancer
intracellular pathogens and abnormal body cells
cells (what is an example of this)? What 2. T lymphocytes which include
kinds of cells are we talking about when we helper T cells (Th) and cytotoxic T
are discussing cell-mediated immunity? cells (Tc)
What do helper T cells do? Secrete cytokines to activate other cells of
the immune system
What do cytotoxic T cells do? They attack infected cells directly

End of Website Animation – 8:24

Adapted immunity (aka ‘specific’ or 1. Humoral = antibodies

‘acquired’) has two broad types. What are 2. Cell-mediated = T cells
they and what do they refer to?
B cells and T cells are both what? Lymphocytes (a type of WBC)
Antibodies are made by what? B cells
Blood is composed of 2 main divisions. 1. Plasma = liquid (serum)
What are they? What is found in the 2. Cells
plasma? What is found in the ‘cells’ 3. Plasma division consists of:
division? What are the WBC’s for? What a. complement (lysing)
are the 2 types of immunity? Innate b. complement
immunity consists of what type (class) of 4. Cell division consists of:
cells? Specific immunity consists of what a. RBC (O2 / CO2)
type (class) of cells? What types of cells b. WBC
make up lymphocytes? Which of these 5. WBC for immunity
make antibodies? 6. the 2 types of immunity are:
a. innate
b. specific
7. innate = phagocytes
8. specific = lymphocytes
9. T cells and B cells
10. B cells
What are the phagocytes of the innate 1. macrophages
immunity division? 2. neutrophils (aka ‘PMN’)
What is an antibody? The protein the binds to the antigen.
Which cell produces antibodies? B cells (B cells are lymphocytes which are
WBC)
When we hear ‘humoral’, what are we Antibodies
referring to?
Allergies, tissue rejection, and contact Cell-mediated immunity by T cells
dermatitis are examples of what type of
immunity by what type of cell?

3
B cells and T cells are activated by what?Antigen
The T cells that help B cells are called 1. T helper cells (Th)
what? How do they help? 2. they talk to each other with
cytokines
What do cytotoxic cells do? Lyse cells (like cancer or virus infected
cells)
How do cells talk to each other? What are 1. cytokines
these made of? What is a good example of 2. made of:
this? a. chemicals
b. proteins
3. interferon
HIV infects what type of cell? T helper cells (Th)
What is going to activate a B cell or a T Antigen (when body exposed to an antigen
cell? = cells start changing and recognizing that
antigen / making antibody and doing
something different)
What happens when our immune system Become immunocompromised and could
goes down? get sick
Health is a balance between what? Our immune system and the virulence
factors of the pathogen
When our bodies become exposed to an 1. antibodies
antigen, what is produced? What main 2. adaptive immunity
division of immunity is this? When do the 3. protect at 2nd (and future)
antibodies produced help to protect us? exposure(s) (not at 1st)
What are some examples of antigens? 1. viruses
2. proteins (toxins)
3. capsule
4. pathogen
5. vaccine
What are capsules made of? What are 1. capsule = polysaccharide =
capsids made of? virulence factor of bacteria (ie:
Clostridium tetani)
2. capsid = protein coating found in
viruses
What happens when our bodies are exposed Exposure => causes rxn => B cells make
to an antigen? antibodies
B cells differentiate into what? 1. plasma cells
2. memory cells
Where do all blood cells come from? What 1. Stem cells in bone marrow
makes these cells differentiate? differentiate into all blood cells
2. hormones, etc.
Where do B cells mature? T cells? 1. in bone marrow
2. in thymus (on trachea above heart
and below thyroid)

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 NOTE: Thymus is large when we are born
and reduces in size as we get older.
Where do B cells mature? T cells? Therefore, when we are born we have not
been exposed to a lot of antigens and our
(continued from page 4) bodies make a lot of T cells.

WEBSITE ANIMATION:

Host Defenses: Overview – 21:06

[Link]

Host defenses can be divided into 2 1. innate (non-specific or general)

categories. What are they? 2. adaptive (aka ‘acquired’) (specific)
The human body has many of which type 1. Innate or non-specific
of defense? This line of defense acts 2. protects against all pathogens (not
against what type of pathogens? specific for any pathogen)
What is the 3rd line of defense of the human 1. specific (aka adaptive) defenses
body comprised of? These defenses 2. specific pathogen
recognize what? What must they be 3. antigen presenting cells
activated by in order to work? What does 4. include:
the 3rd line of defense include? a. antibodies
b. cytotoxic cells

End of Website Animation – 22:09

What are examples of antigen presenting 1. macrophages

cells? 2. dendritic cells
What is important for the body to recognize Antigen (not the whole cell)
to start AB production?
NOTE: recall sub-unit vaccines which
used just the antigenic portion of the
vaccine that was used to be able to get the
antibody to get made

Where is complement found? What does it 1. found in the liquid portion of blood
do? (‘plasma’ which is aka ‘serum’)
2. lysing cells (like bacteria)
Where is antibody found? Same place as complement (= plasma)
How do you know if someone has Antibody titer goes up
protection against the hepatitis virus from
the hepatitis vaccine?
The concentration of antibody in serum is 1. antibody titer
called what? What does it indicate if it 2. increase in AB titer indicates:
increases? a. exposure
b. protection
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How do they know if someone is infected 1. antibody level goes up
with HIV? What happens at the end? 2. T cell decreases (< 200 = AIDS)
To check exposure, one should do what? Check AB levels
WBC get out of the blood via capillaries, 1. lymphatic system
enter the interstitial space, and enter what 2. lymphatic tissue
system? What kind of tissue makes up this 3. EX of lymphatic tissue include:
system? What are some examples of this a. tonsils
tissue? What kinds of cells are primarily b. lymph nodes
found in this tissue? What will also be c. spleen
found here? d. thymus
4. lymphocytes (primarily T cells but
will also find some B cells)
5. phagocytes

Lymph nodes swelling is an indication of Viral infection

what?
What is lymph? A liquid that is kind of like plasma (clear,
kind of thick, and circulates throughout the
lymphatic system)
Why would a doctor check the lymph b/c cancer cells can get into lymphatic
nodes if he suspects a patient has cancer? system (just like WBC can go back and
forth) and this is one way that they spread
Where does the lymphatic system connect Left subclavian vein
with the blood system?
NOTE: when we absorb fats, they are put
into the lymphatic system and not the blood
system

T cells mature in the what? Thymus

B cells mature in the what? Bone marrow
T cells and B cells both come from what? Bone marrow stem cells
What kinds of cells make plasma cells? 1. B cells
What else do they make? 2. memory cells
Cells that are phagocytic present what? These are the antigen presenting cells
Phagocytic cells in blood are called what? 1. monocytes
In tissue? 2. macrophages
What other type of phagocytic cell is found Dendritic cells
in tissue?

WEBSITE ANIMATION:

Phagocytosis: Overview – 32:34

[Link]

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Which cells of the immune system use 1. macrophages
phagocytosis? 2. neutrophils (aka PMN)
NOTE: these cells are often called
phagocytes

End of Website Animation – 33:05

What is the very first step in phagocytosis? 1. chemotaxis

What does this mean? What is the 2nd step? 2. move toward a pathogen (or
3rd step? What does ingestion produce? whatever)
3. adherence
4. ingestion (eating)
5. makes phagosome
What are the 5 steps to phagocytosis? 1. chemotaxis
2. adherence
3. ingestion
4. digestion
5. exocytosis
Where are lysosomes found? What are 1. found in phagocytes (ie:
they? macrophages, neutrophils, etc)
2. vesicles that contain lysozyme
(which lyses bacterial cells) and
other chemicals
What is a phagolysosome? What happens 1. When a phagosome comes together
once this is formed? What is this process (merges) with a lysosome = creates
called? What happens next? phagolysosome
2. lysozyme kills the bacteria by
breaking up the cell wall
3. Digestion
4. Exocytosis (spits out trash into
body = elimination)

WEBSITE ANIMATION:

Phagocytosis: Mechanism – 36:33

[Link]

The movement of a cell toward of away Chemotaxis

from a stimulus is called what?

End of Website Animation – 39:16

The part of the phagolysosome that is 1. Antigenic part

presented on the cell membrane during / 2. B cells are going to bind to its
after exocytosis is what part? Why is this receptors to make antibodies
important?
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What are the most numerous cells found in 1. RBC
the blood? How would you recognize 2. no nucleus
them?

What is a recognizable feature(s) of a 1. multi-lobed nucleus

neutrophil? What is another name for a 2. granules inside
neutrophil? 3. polymorphonuclear (PMN)
What is a recognizable feature(s) of a 1. no granules
monocyte? What is a monocyte called in 2. macrophage
tissue? In blood? 3. monocyte
What is a recognizable feature(s) of a 1. about same size as RBC
lymphocyte? Can we tell, under 2. 1 large round nucleus (takes up
magnification in the blood stream, if these nearly whole cell) and no granules
will be T cells or B cells? 3. NO (just that it’s a lymphocyte)
What is the most numerous WBC in the Neutrophil
blood?
When a cell presents an antigen, what kinds 1. an antibody response (B cells)
of responses could we get? 2. or a T cell response
Why is Streptococcus pneumoniae resistant 1. it has a capsule (makes it hard for
to phagocytosis? Staphylococcus aureus? phagocytes to break it down)
Mycobacterium tubercolosis? Which 2. it is able to LIVE inside
organisms produce leukocidins? What is a macrophages (also refer to #4)
leukocidin? 3. same as above (refer next question
for more info)
4. Staph aureus and Strep pyogenes
5. proteins that kill leukocytes (which
are WBC)
How would one ‘catch’ tuberculosis? 1. one has to be exposed to it
What is the normal flora of the lower (airborne)
respiratory tract (LRT)? What is here 2. none
instead? What then happens to the 3. macrophages live here (which eat
Mycobacterium tuberculosis? the mycobacterium)
4. eaten but NOT killed = start to
grow inside neutrophils

NOTE: this is one of its pathogenic

mechanisms

Redness, swelling, pain, and heat are 1. Inflammation

localized at a site of what? Is this specific 2. non-specific (recall that
or non-specific? inflammation is part of the 2nd line
of defense of the innate defense
mechanism)
What are leukocytes? WBC’s

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 WEBSITE ANIMATION:

Inflammation: Overview – 44:47

[Link]

What line of defense has the following 3 Inflammation; this is a general (non-
main functions: specific) response that may result in
1. to destroy the agent causing injury redness, pain, heat, swelling, and
2. to limit the effects of the agent on sometimes loss of function. This is a 2nd
the rest of the body line of defense mechanism and is a
3. to repair of replace damaged tissue subcategory of ‘Innate Defense
Mechanisms’.

End of Website Animation – 45:20

What happens when we cut ourselves (what 1. bacteria gets in resulting in

gets in)? Why does inflammation produce increased blood supply (this results
heat? Swelling? in redness)
2. phagocytes and blood cells come
out into tissue = more activity =
more heat
3. results from dilation of blood
vessels = cells and fluid leave
vessels and go into tissue =
swelling

WEBSITE ANIMATION:

Inflammation: Steps – 46:40

[Link]

Damaged cells release several chemicals. 1. Ex. of chemicals released include:

What are some examples of these? What a. prostaglandins
system can also stimulate the release of b. histamines
histamines? What is one purpose for the c. leukotrienes
release of these chemicals? What does this 2. complement system (recall that this
result in? What direct effect do these system is one of the ‘2nd line of
chemicals have on the capillaries in the defense mechanisms’ as part of the
area of the injury? What is the result of larger group of ‘innate defenses’.
this effect to the affected areas? What does 3. basal dilation which increases the
the increased blood flow deliver to the diameter of arteries and arterioles
scene? What do phagocytes become after 4. results in more blood = more
engulfing large numbers of intruding micro phagocytes, O2, and nutrients =
organisms / tissue and dying? What increased redness, heat, and some
happens after this? pain
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 5. cause walls of capillaries to open
and become ‘leakier’ which results
in the release of more fluid into the
affected tissue spaces
6. results in swelling (aka ‘edema’)
7. phagocytes (such as monocytes and
Website Animation (Inflammation: steps) neutrophils)
8. pus
(continued from page 9) 9. other components in blood seal off
the site of injury through a clotting
mechanism which then allows for
tissue repair

End of Website Animation – 48:28

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 Biology 261 (exam 04) : Class 32 (2nd class of exam 04) - Monday – 04-12-10
Essentials of Immunology
(Chapter 29 – continued)

What are the characteristic symptoms of redness, swelling, and heat

inflammation?
Cells ‘talk’ to each other by the use of 1. cytokines = proteins
what? Give an example of this? 2. interferons
Cytokines tell what to come to the site 3. neutrophils (aka ‘PMN’ for
of the cut, etc. polymorphonuclear neutrophil)
What do interferons do? protect cells from getting infected with viruses
What type of a reaction is occurring 1. inflammation reaction
when somebody gets a bee sting and it 2. cytokines AND chemokines
swells up, becomes red, and gets hot? 3. in the blood
What chemical is released by the 4. phagocytosis
damaged cells to alert neutrophils that 5. interleukins = type of cytokine
aid is needed as a result? Where are the
neutrophils? Upon arrival, what will the
neutrophils do? PMNs are attracted to
the site of inflammation by a type of
cytokine (protein) called what?
What would happen if inflammation did 1. The pathogen would start to grow,
not occur? This could result in what possibly make toxins, and get into the
type of infection? blood stream
2. systemic infection
What arrives first to the site of an 1. neutrophils
infection? What attracts them? 2. interleukins
In some cases inflammation may fail 1. systemic infection
allowing the pathogen to spread to the 2. septic shock
blood stream resulting in a what? What 3. septic shock caused by high levels of
else might occur as a result of this? histamines in blood
What causes septic shock? What is 4. body’s inflammatory = basal dilater
histamine? What could a high level of 5. causes blood pressure to drop which
histamine in the blood do to the blood could lead to septic shock
pressure?
WBC’s with a 3-lobed nucleus and 1. Neutrophil
granules is a what? With 1 great big 2. macrophage
nucleus and no granules?
What are the granules seen inside a 1. bacteria that has been eaten
macrophage? The granules are within a 2. phagosome (or vesicle)
what? They will combine with what? 3. lysosome
What does this form? What does the 4. phagolysosome
lysosome do? Where does this occur? 5. lyse the cells (breaks B 1-4 linkages in
PG cell wall)
6. occurs in the cytoplasm of WBC’s

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Where are macrophages found? 1. tissue
Monocytes? 2. same thing but found in blood instead
of tissue
What type of immunity leads to the 1. cell-mediated immunity
killing of pathogen-infected cells 2. T cells
through recognition of pathogen 3. adapted (aka ‘acquired’)
antigens found on infected host cells? 4. antigens
When we talk about cell-mediated
immunity, what kinds of cells are we
talking about? What broad category of
our body’s defense mechanism is cell-
mediated immunity? T cell receptors
bind to what?
B cells are for what type of immunity? 1. humoral immunity
What do they do? 2. produce antibodies (AB) and memory
cells
Do T cells or B cells respond to 1. both respond to antigens
antigens? B cells and T cells are what 2. lymphocytes
type of cells? Where are B cells? T 3. mature in bone marrow
cells? Which of these are related to cell- 4. mature in thymus
mediated immunity? The making of 5. T cells
antibodies? 6. B cells
We have two types of overall immunity. 1. innate and adapted
What are they? Which of these is 2. adapted (aka ‘acquired’ and ‘specific’)
specific? What 3 characteristics of is specific
adapted immunity make it special? 3. 3 characteristics are:
What does ‘specificity’ mean? a. specificity
‘Memory’? ‘Tolerance’? b. memory
c. tolerance
4. specific b/c AB or T cell ONLY binds
to SPECIFIC antigen
5.
Our in-tact skin, low pH of stomach, Innate
WBC, and lysozyme in our tears are
examples of what type of immunity?
What are the regions of all antibodies? 1. constant and variable
Which region binds to the antigen? 2. variable
How do we classify antibodies? What 3. constant region of AB puts it in a class
does ‘Ig’ mean? Which region changes (ie: IgG, IgM, IgA)
to match the antigen for binding? 4. ‘Immunoglobulin’ which means
‘antibody’
NOTE: The old term for AB was
immunoglobulin (‘globulin’ b/c it is a
protein and ‘immuno’ b/c it produces an
immune response).
5. variable region
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Do all cells have antigens? Why would 1. Yes
someone’s body reject a kidney that has 2. b/c it is foreign = the antigens on the
been received through a transplant? received kidney says that it does not
belong to the recipient’s body
What does our body make when we Antibodies against the antigens found on the
become infected with a bacteria? bacterial cell wall
Do we make AB against ourself? Not usually
What type of disease is Type I diabetes? 1. Auto-immune disease
What does this mean? 2. this means that the person’s body
makes antibodies against the B cells in
the pancreas that make insulin = kills
own body’s B cells of pancreas = lyse
these cells = no insulin production =
insulin dependent diabetes
Will a vaccine for tetanus help with the 1. no
flu? Why or why not? 2. b/c the AB made are specific for
tetanus and will not physically attach
to the protein receptors found on the
flu’s cell walls
Are adapted immune responses general Specific
or specific?
Why do we get vaccines? What do we 1. so that we will have protection against
use to give someone a vaccine? If we a pathogen b/c AB made to protect
had the flu vaccine what would happen against it
if we came into contact with someone 2. weakened form of the antigen
who had the flu? Why, in this case, 3. AB’s made would bind to the flu
would it bind? Why do we get booster antigens to protect us from infection
shots? What types of cells have 4. binds b/c it remembered the antigen
‘memory cells’? 5. receiving booster shots = AB titer goes
up which makes it last even longer
6. B cells and T cells (this allows the
cells to make things again in the future
AND faster)
What is the reason we don’t make 1. tolerance
antibodies (AB) against ourselves? 2. auto-immune disease = make AB
What results if we lose tolerance? against our own antigens (proteins)
Is a secondary AB response slower or Faster
faster than the primary AB response?
The substances that react with AB or T Antigens
cell receptors (found on T cells) are
what?
T or F: All antigens are immunogens FALSE (ie: haptogens)
What are immunogens? Substances that induce an immune response
(ie: make AB, reject tissue, etc)

13
What happens the very first time 1. no response
someone is exposed to an antigen that 2. response b/c AB now made to fight it
they are allergic to? 2nd time? 3rd time? (respond to it)
3. Each additional time = more severe
immune response (ie: keep taking
penicillin if allergic = anaphylactic
shock;
[Link]
nicillin-allergy-topic-overview = could
die b/c histamine is released = BP goes
down and pass out)
Antigens that do not produce an 1. haptogens
immune response are called what? Do 2. immunogens
produce an immune response?
The AB (or T cell receptor) binds on the 1. at the antigenic determinant or epitope
cell at the what?
NOTE: this is where the reaction is
actually going to happen = binds at
specific places on the protein

What kinds of receptors do T cells 1. T cell receptors

have? Where do they bind? 2. to the antigen
What would a medical professional look 1. Major Histocompatibility Complex
at when considering immune-mediated (MHC)
organ transplant rejection? What are the 2. Types include:
different types (classes) of this? Which a. Class I MHC
class of MHC is on the surface of all b. Class II MHC
nucleated cells? What kinds of cells do 3. Class I MHC
not have a nucleus? Why would this be 4. red blood cells (RBC’s)
important? What other antigens are 5. not everyone can receive anyone else’s
found on RBC’s? Where is Class II RBC’s indiscriminately
MHC found? 6. A, B, AB, RH
7. Class II MHC found on:
a. B cells
b. Macrophages
c. Dendritic cells
What makes our cells different from one MHC antigens
person to the next?
NOTE: this is where T cell receptors are
going to bind

T cells are what? Lymphocyte

What are the different types of T cells? 1. Cytotoxic T cells
2. T helper cels
What do cytotoxic T cells cause to Causes lyses (kills cell)
happen to the cell that it attaches to?
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What is the process that occurs for the Binds => releases granules which cause the
lysing of another cell by cytotoxic T punching of holes in cell membrane => cell
cells? lyses
What is apoptosis? Cell death
What is the process called when 1. degranulation
cytotoxic T cells releases granules that 2. perforin
cause pores in a target cell’s
membranes? What are the pores called?
T cells are what? What kinds of T cells 1. lymphocytes
are there? What else are these known 2. Tc (cytotoxic) and Th (helper) cells
as? Why are they called this? What do 3. CD8 and CD4 respectively
cytotoxic T cells do? T helper cells? 4. has to do with receptor they have on
Which of these are infected by the HIV their cell membrane
virus? 5. lyse cells with foreign antigens
6. produce cytokines (ie: interferons) to
get B cells to make antibodies
7. T helper cells
What kinds of cells are antigen 1. macrophages / neutrophils
presenting cells? What does this mean? 2. after phagocytosis, foreign cells is
What kinds of cells do they present broken up and only the antigen is
these to? What is made once the T presented of their cell membrane
helper cells bind? What do cytotoxic T 3. T cells or B cells
cells do? 4. cytokines are produced which tell the
B cells to do something
5. lyse cells
What is the other type of cytotoxic cell? 1. natural killer cells (NK cells)
Are they also WBC’s? What do they 2. yes = WBC
look for? How many times must one be 3. kill cells that do not have MHC
exposed before these cells do their job? protein on it (ie: cancer)
Do these cells have ‘memory’? What 4. work right away = do not need to have
happens if a tumor gets real big? prior exposure
5. NO (born with a certain # of these and
they do their job = main thing is to
destroy cancer cells and those infected
with bacteria that live inside our cells
like tuberculosis and chlamydia)
6. the size of the tumor overwhelms the
natural killer cells which makes them
ineffective

What do T helper cells do (how do they They ‘help’ other cells by:
‘help’ other cells)? 1. make cytokines
2. activate macrophages
3. tell B cells to start making AB

15
What is another name for antibodies? 1. immunoglobulin
How many classes of AB are there? 2. 5 different classes
What are they? Where are AB mainly 3. IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE
found? What is serum? Where else are 4. serum
AB found? Which class of AB is the 5. liquid portion of blood (AB are soluble
most common? Which of the AB gives proteins in the blood)
us the longest immunity? What are the 6. breastmilk and some gastric secretions
2 parts of AB? What do they do? 7. IgG
Which of the 5 classes of AB crosses 8. IgG
the placental barrier? How is this good? 9. constant and variable
Bad? IgG is found in the ____ and 10. they do the following:
_____. a. constant = gives AB innate
class (ie: IgG)
b. variable = binds to antigen
11. IgG (recall RH factor)
12. Good = when baby born = has some
AB protection received from mother as
a result
13. Bad = RH factors
14. blood and lymph
What is complement? Where is it 1. Protein
found? What does it bind to? What 2. found in serum
does it result in? Can the AB bind to a 3. binds to Ag / AB complex (antigen /
cell? What results from this? AB complex)
4. results in lysing of cells
5. AB can bind
6. results in clumping which makes it fall
out of solution, etc (then complement
can come along and actually blow cell
up)
The first AB to appear when exposed to 1. IgM
an antigen is what? Which AB gives us 2. IgG
the long term immunity (2nd and
subsequent exposures)?
What does an AB titer tell us? Why 1. Concentration (how much is there)
would this go down after a period of 2. b/c AB have a half-life
time?
The secondary AB response is also Anamnestic response
called a what?
IgA AB can be found in what? Secretions (saliva, breastmilk, blood, fluids,
etc)

NOTE: this is important b/c babies, when

breastfeeding, get IgA which gives them some
protection

16
Flu vaccines cause our bodies to IgA (this is a good thing b/c IgA is in our
primarily make what type of AB? secretions and, when we breathe in the flu
virus, it doesn’t affect us)
What should we remember about the 1. secretions
following: 2. 1st exposure
1. IgA 3. long term immunity AND crosses the
2. IgM placenta AND 2nd responses
3. IgG 4. don’t know a lot about this yet
4. IgD 5. allergic rxns AND parasitic infections
5. IgE
What 3 things should we remember 1. provides long term immunity
about IgG? 2. crosses the placenta
3. involved in 2nd (and subsequent) AB
responses
What 2 things should we remember 1. allergic reactions
about IgE? 2. parasitic infections (ie: malaria,
intestinal worms, etc)
AB production begins with exposure to 1. antigen
what? Primary AB response comes 2. plasma cells
from what type of cells? Secondary AB 3. memory cells
response comes from what type of cells?
We have B cells and then get exposed to 1. T cells / antibody (AB) (NOTE that
an antigen. The ____ cells tell the B this is called proliferation = making a
cells to start making ____ against it. bunch of B cells that will make same
The first producing cells are what? AB)
They make primarily what? In addition 2. plasma cells
to these cells, our body makes ____. 3. IgM
What do these made for? During 4. memory B cells
second exposure, the memory cells 5. to remember antigen to protect our
make the AB which is what? bodies against future exposure(s)
6. IgG
Primary AB response = ? Plasma cells / IgM
Secondary AB response = ? Memory cells / IgG
Plasma cells and memory cells are both Lymphocytes => B cells
what?
Complement proteins bind in a 1. complement cascade = 1 binds, then
particular order / structure called a what next, then next, etc (like dominos)
(and what does this mean)? What does 2. membrane attack complex
it form? What is the goal of this? 3. to lyse the cell
Enhancement of phagocytosis by AB or opsonization
complement binding is called what?

17
 Biology 261 (exam 04) : Class 33 (3rd class of exam 04) - Wednesday – 04-14-10
Immunity in Host Defense and Disease
(Chapter 30)

What type of immunity is everybody born 1. innate immunity

with? What does it include? Does it 2. in tact skin, macrophages,
require exposure to antigens? What type of neutrophils, complement,
immunity requires exposure to antigens? inflammation
3. NO
4. adapted (acquired) immunity
What types of organisms are we talking Pathogenic organisms
about normally when we talk about
antigens?
(Adapted immunity) Primary immune 1. IgM
response is what? What is this made by? 2. plasma cells
Secondary response is? Made by? What 3. IgG
does IgG give us? 4. memory cells
5. long term immunity
What are plasma and memory cells? Lymphocytes => B cells
What kind of B cells make AB? Plasma cells (make to start off with for
primary response)
What do memory cells do? Remember antigen so that AB can be made
faster (kick in for secondary response)
What binds to the antigen? T cell receptors
B cells make the AB and the AB binds The variable portion of the AB binds to the
specifically to what? antigenic determinant (or epitope)
What does the constant region of the AB Which class it is in
tell you?
What’s special about:
1. IgG 1. crosses placenta / long term
2. IgM 2. 1st produced
3. IgA 3. secretions
4. IgE 4. involved in allergic rxns and
5. IgD parasites
5. they don’t know yet
Where are major histocompatibility 1. Found on the cells (nucleated cells)
complex (MHC) antigens found? What 2. self (these are our ‘self antigens’)
does it recognize?
NOTE: things that are different from MHC
is what causes a reaction

What do cytotoxic T cells do? They are 1. lyse

CD what? 2. CD8 T cells

18
What do T helper cells do? What could 1. help
they help? They are CD what? 2. help:
a. B cells to make AB
b. Send out cytokines to
activate macrophages
3. CD4 T cells
What does a cytokine do? Communicate (they are proteins or
chemicals that allow cells to communicate
to one another; ie: interferon)
AB is made out of what? Where are they 1. protein
found? 2. serum
The liquid portion of the blood is what? Plasma
The liquid portion of the blood that has AB Serum
in it is what?
What kind of cells are antigen presenting Macrophages, Monocytes, Dendritic Cells
cells?
What is a complement? Where is it found? 1. protein
What does it do? How does the 2. serum
compliment bind? What does this form? 3. function is to bind to the Ag / AB
What does the membrane attack complex reactions (recall that AB binds to
allow to be released? What is the result of pathogen 1st and then complement
this? comes and binds)
4. binds in a cascade
5. forms ‘membrane attack complex’
6. perforins and granzymes
7. The above are released in order to
punch holes in cells which results in
cell lysis = death
The goal when a complement binds is to The pathogen
destroy what?
Which binds first, the AB or the AB then the complement
complement? NOTE: there will be a bunch of AB bound

Natural immunity means what? It happened naturally (ie: you got chicken
pox and don’t get it anymore b/c you made
AB against it)
Innate immunity means what? Born with it
Natural usually implies a what? Infection
What are the 2 main types of natural 1. active
immunity? 2. passive
You are given AB in which type of natural Passive (in shots, breastmilk, etc)
immunity?
You make your own AB in which type of Active
natural immunity?
(exposed to antigen and B cells make AB)

19
Does active or passive give longer 1. active
immunity? Why? 2. b/c in active you also have memory
cells which give long term
immunity
Does passive immunity provide long term 1. No; this provides short term
immunity? Why or why not? immunity
2. AB are going to bind to an antigen
and work right then, but there is
nothing in passive immunity to
make more AB … so when all AB
that are given to you are bound =
it’s over
Get sick and then get well is an example of Natural active immunity (ie: chickenpox,
what type of immunity? etc)
AB given in breast milk is an example of Natural passive immunity
what type of immunity?
Being given a vaccine is an example of Artificial active immunity
what type of immunity?
Anti-venom or anti-toxin is an example of Artificial passive immunity
what type of immunity?
Being given a vaccine = given a what? Antigen
Antibiotics are what? Chemicals
What does anti-venom contain? Venom
What does anti-toxin contain? Toxin
Anti-venom / toxin works in our bodies b/c AB for venom / toxin contained in anti-V /
of what? anti-T so that when AB binds to antigen, it
neutralizes the antigen so that the venom /
toxin which would normally kill the tissue
but in this case it CAN’T BIND to do this
= neutralizes the rxn.
What do we use to prevent the spread of Immunization
disease?
Toxoids are what? Inactivated toxins
What’s important in the vaccine? The antigen (the body sees the antigen and
causes the body to make AB)
Meningitis is associated with what? Capsules
What goes together in a conjugated 1. Polysaccharide and protein together
vaccine? What does the protein part of this 2. better immune response
vaccine provide?
Attenuated virus = what? Weakened
Getting booster shots increases what? AB titer (concentration)
Hypersensitivity has to do with what type 1. T cell immunity
of immunity? This primarily occurs with 2. allergies (= really hypersensitive
what? reactions; ie: bee sting, hay fever,
etc)

20
There are 4 types of hypersensitive 1. the four types are:
reactions. What are they? What types of a. Type I
reactions do each cause? b. Type II
c. Type III
d. Type IV
2. they cause (respectively):
a. immediate = happens fast
b. cytotoxic = lyses cells
c. immune complex
d. delayed type = takes hours
to days
An immediate reaction to a bee sting is 1. Type I
what type of hypersensitive reaction? 2. Type III
Lupus and inflammation of the kidneys? A 3. Type II
reaction to penicillin (allergic to 4. Type IV
penicillin)? Poison Ivy? Reaction to 5. Type IV
nickel earrings (put on earrings and itching
at end of day / oozing, etc.)?
Immune complexes tell you ___ and ____? Antigen / Antibody (they bind and get
caught up in places like the kidneys, etc)
Which hypersensitive reactions get worse They all do but Type I will get worse faster
over time?
Type I hypersensitive rxns are associated IgE (Type I can be mild to life threatening)
with what AB?
Body makes IgE against antigen =>
constant region of IgE binds to a mast cell
(which contains granules, histamine, etc)
=> exposed again to allergin => antigen
cross links the antigen that’s already bound
=> causes degranulization of mast cell
which give symptoms of allergies
What do you take when you have an An anti-histamine (because the histamines
allergic rxn? have been released into blood)
The goal of allergy shots is to make what? IgG
What blocks IgE? IgG
The following list contains examples of Type I = immediate hypersensitivity rxns
what type of allergic (hypersensitivity)
rxn? Pollen / fungal spores = hay fever
Insect venom = bee sting
[Pollen and fungal spores, insect venoms, Certain foods = strawberries, nuts, shellfish
certain foods, animal dander, mites in
house dust]

What are the 2 common types of allergic 1. Type I = immediate

rxns? 2. Type IV = delayed
What is the antigen in poison ivy? The oil
21
Is poison ivy contagious? No; you have to be exposed to the oil in
plant
Which type of hypersensitity (allergic) rxn 1. Type IV = delayed
is cell-mediated? Which type of cells are 2. T helper cells (not an AB at all)
giving you the rxn? How many exposures 3. have to be exposed more than once
are required to get a rxn?
Antibodies that interact with self-antigens 1. Autoantibodies (AB made against
are what? What is an example of a disease yourself)
caused by autoantibodies? 2. juvenile diabetes (AB made against
B cells of pancreas that make
insulin)
What do you lose to get an autoimmune Tolerance
disease?
We see superantigens with what organism? 1. Staphylococcus aureus
What kind of an infection does this cause? 2. systemic
What kind of immunity is this? 3. cell-mediated immunity
An autoimmune disease is a disease caused autoantibodies
by what type of antibodies?

22
 Microbiology – Test 4 Class 34 04-16-10
Chapter 32 Diagnostic Microbiology & Immunology
Why would you need blood samples To check for antibodies, White blood
collected? count, isolate
What else could be tested? Urine, Fecal matter,
What kind of diseases would they be Respiratory infections: Tuberculosis,
looking for with a sputum sample? Pneumonia
Why would they need CSF? Where would If person was suspected to have Meningitis.
they get it from? Get it from the subachranoid space
If someone is sick, how can physicians ID 1. Immunoassays – Blood Sample
pathogen? 2. Grow and isolate the organism
If the physician decides to grow the Conventional Microbiology
organism, one cold do_____ or ______ Molecular Biology
Conventional Microbiology means that one Grow and isolate the pathogen from
would sample.
How would one do this Grow on appropriate enrichment media
Use selective media – Selects for pathogen
Use Differential media (yes or no answers)
Why would you use an enrichment media? to get pathogen to grow and inhibit local
flora growth
Why do they have to have it in a pure able to ID pathogen
culture?
What is a physician looking for when he To determine which drug would be
orders a culture and sensitivity test? appropriate for the pathogen
How long does this take? What happens on Day 1 – Streak it out
each day? Day 2 – Get in pure culture
Day 3 or 4 – Run Biochemical Tests
Minimum = 3 days (72 hours)
For the Immunoassays what are you likely Antibodies
looking for?
What part of the blood do you need? Serum
What are a few of the tests able to run with Agglutination, RIA, ELISA, etc…
these techniques…
Where should samples be taken? Why From site of infection,
Most likely to have pathogen
Taking it aseptically means what? Taken without contamination
How is a sample transported to the lab? In transport media, keeps organism alive.
Why would you not want the organism to Could give a false reading to severity of
grow while transporting it? How could you disease. Keep cold -
do this
Why would you not want to freeze a CSF B/c it would kill the pathogen neiserria
sample?
General Purpose Media TSA or Blood Agar
Enriched Media Aids in growth of fastidious (Picky)
organisms
23
Enrichment Media Suppresses growth of normal flora, allows
pathogen growth.
Selective Media example MSA – Manitol Salt Agar
What is selective / differential about MSA Selective = 7.5% Salt (for staph)
Differential = Manitol
How is MSA differential? Manitol fermentation = makes acid
Acidic = yellow = s. aures
Not Acidic = Red = S. epidermidis
What is the difference between Staph. S. aures = pathogenic
aures and Staph epidermis? S. epidermis = local flora on skin
Everything grows on _______. Blood
What is an example of an enteric agar? EMB = Eosin Methylene Blue
(Enteric = relating to intestine)
What is enteric agar selective for? Gram – Rods : [Link], Salmonella,
Shigella…
Chocolate agar is actually what? Used to Blood agar with lysed blood, dark
grow? brownish in color
Neissera (Gram- Dipplococci) causes
meningitis and gonorrhea.
If someone is suspected to have meningitis, Mengitis = CSF
what kind of sample would you take?
Gonhorhea? Ghonorea = Swab sex organs
Mycobacteria causes Tuberculosis and Leprosy
Anerobic media is for Clostridium
With blood cultures you are looking for Bacteremia = presence of bacteria
bacteremia and septicemia. What do these Septecemia = have infection (growth)
mean
Why are females more susceptible to get Shorter urethra
urinary infection.
If you are going to grow out a urine sample Clean catch midstream  is this correct?)
you need… urine so you would not grow out normal
flora
What can be tested for on a dipstick test? Glucose, billrubin, ketones, specific
gravity, blood, ph, protein, urobillinogen,
& WBC
What is beneficial for dipstick test Easy, cheap, noninvasive, get a lot of
information.
EMB is used for what type of bacteria? Enteric bacteria, G- rods such as e-coli.
If someone has strep throat, what would a Beta (total) hemolysis around colonies
blood agar show
A quick test is looking for? Antibody test, antibody binds to strep and
changes color of fast test
Why do you think you could correctly
identify Neisseria gonorrhoeae in a gram G- dipplococci – will be Neisseria (only)
stain?

24
Neisseria gonorrhoeae infects what type of Neutrophils, because they get phagocytised
cells
What is the first step in identifying Quadrant streak (to isolate)
bacteria.?
What would come next? Grow out one of the colonies into
slant/broth/ or other plate.
How often does e-coli double? Every 20 minutes
Anaerobes must grow In an anerobic environment.
What does hydrogen in the sealed anoxic Binds to Oxygen making water to make the
jar do inside anaerobic
Carbohydrate fermentation tests ph Phenol Red or Methyl Red
indicator is _______.
Red = _______ Red = Neutral
yellow = ______ Yellow = Acidic (Fermentation)
Pink = _______ Pink = Base
What is a Durham tube used for? Trap gases
How do you know organism grew turbidity in broth
What would make the broth turn pink? Bacteria made solution basic, using
How? captones instead of sugars and giving off
amino groups, making basic
TSI = _____ Triple Sugar Iron
What does bacteria typically use for carbon Glucose or somekind of suger
source?
The Citrate test looks to see if ______ A bacteria is able to use citrate as source of
carbon instead of CHO (blue = positive,
green = negative)
In biochemical tests what are you looking enzymes
for?
Disk Diffusion tests are used for Antibiotic sensitivity
If you have a zone of inhibition this Antibiotic killed organism, which means
means… organism is susceptible to antibiotic
MIC stands for what? Define… Minimum inhibitory concentration –
amount necessary to inhibit growth of
organism

25
 Biology 261 (exam 04) : Class 35 (5th class of exam 04) - Monday – 04-19-10
Diagnostic Microbiology and Immunology Epidemology
(Chapter 32 - continued) (Chapter 33)

Safety in labs is rated by… BioSafety Levels (BSL)

Student labs are rated _____ and a ______ BSL 1
is the highest safety level. BSL 4
What is ebola? Virus, causes fever, bleed out all your
organs (From eyes, nose, ears).
Antibody titer is Count of antibody
What is the tell-tale sign of infection? Temperature increase
What causes typhoid fever? Acquired by? Salmonela, contaminated (Feces) water
Where does salmonella live? GI Tract
Salmonela infection begins in _______, Blood, GI Tract, Urine Tract
travels to ______ then passes to _____.
What happens when the antibody os the Organism has been cleared from body,
highest? temp declines
Whats the difference between a Monoclonal = Antibodies made by single t-
monoclonal and a polyclonal antibody? cell, very very specific,
Polyclonal = multiple classes of antibodies
What’s a myleoma celll? What does it do? Cancer cell, grow forever
How would you make a monoclonal Mix a myelomal cell and B-Cell and end up
antibody? with a b-cell that makes monoclonal
antibody
Monoclonal antibodies are used in what Diagnostic tests such as pregnancy tests,
type of testing? drug tests…
Serology and antibody testing is ____ and Sensitive and specific
___.
What is Neutralization? What would be an 1. The interaction of antibody with
example of this? antigen to block or distort antigen.
2. Toxin and antibody bind, rendering
toxin ineffective
Antitoxin is what? An antiserum that contains an antibody that
neutralizes a toxin
Antitoxins are made… in another animal, not human…
What kind of immunity is this? Artificial Passive immunity (Passive =
antibody)
What will happen if the antibody binds to Antibody binds then many compliments
the toxin? bind making it easier for the toxin to be
phagocytized.
Precipitation and agglutination are what Both are precipitation reactions but Both
type of antigen-antibody reactions? are Antigen – Antibody reaction
What is Precipitation antigen-antibody Soluble Antigen + Soluble Antibody =
reaction is… Insoluble Solid precopitate
What would be an example of an insoluble A cell (Agglutination Reaction)
antigen?
26
An agglutination occurs when The antibody is insoluble (a cell) and binds
to the antigen, causes a precipitation.
[TEXT: visible clumping of a particular
antigen when mixed with antibodies
What is an example of an agglutination? Blood Typing
What is the antigen on a blood cell (Blood AB, A, B & RH as the antigen
Type)
What is the blood typing serum made of? Antibody A, B and RH
Mix the blood typing serum and blood If antigen is present = agglutination
what happens? For example if you are type -A blood and
Antibody A is present in the typing serum
there will be an agglutination, antibody B
will have no reaction and RH will be no
reaction also.
Type O blood has what type of antigens? Type O: None (haa did I trick you?)
Type A has? Type A: A antigens
Type B has Type B: B Antigens
Type AB has? Type AB: has Both
Passive agglutination uses ______ to cause Latex Bead
agglutination
How do fluorescent antibodies? add a fluorescent dye to antibody, antigen
binds to antibody then observe under
fluorescent microscope.
Fluorescence can be especially helpful with Bacteria that don’t grow in culture
Example: If someone has syphilis, the
bacteria would be in body and add
fluorescently tagged antibody. If it lights
up under the microscope they are positive.
Are antigen-antibodies specific? Yes, only bind to each other with high
specificity.
ELISA stands for Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay
What are the two types of ELISA? Direct ELISA = Looking for Antigen
Indirect ELISA = Looking for Antibody
What is used to make an ELISA Test? Microtiter plate
How would you make a Direct ELISA 1. Put antibody into microtiter well
Test? 2. Add serum sample (with suspected
antigen)
3. Add secondary antibody with color
(only binds to antibody–antigen complex)
4. Look for color change = + test
How would you make an indirect ELISA 1. Start out with antigen in well
Test? 2. Add serum (with suspected antibody)
3. Add secondary antibody with color
4. Look for color change – + test

27
Which test would one use to test for HIV? Indirect ELISA
How does this work If person is infected, their body will
produce specific antigens for the HIV
pathogen, the Indirect ELISA tests positive
for presence of such antibodies.
What is an RIA test? RadioImmunoAssay
How does an RIA work? A radioactive isotope is attached to antigen,
much like direct ELISA, then radioactivity
of sample is determined and compared to a
standard to determine antibody levels.
Classical Microbiology is what? Have sample
Culture / grow
Identify
Run sensitivity tests (find what drug to kill
pathogen)

Process may take a few weeks

Serology is what? Looks for Antibodies
Very Specific
Almost Immediate results
Molecular Biology (Nucleic Acid) uses Uses Probes, radioisotopes, DNA
what? comparing to RNA.
Molecular Biology is especially used for Viruses, because they do not grow in lab.
what? Why Must have Host.

Chapter 33 Epidemiology
What is epidemiology? Study of disease occurrence, transmission
& Origin
People that study epidemiology are called Epidemiologist
what? Who do they work for? CDC, NIH, WHO
Why is this important? For prevention
Do they find cures to diseases? Not necessarily important to
epidemiologist, mainly prevention
What is the best way control a disease? Prevention
Worldwide infectios disease count for ____ 30%
% of all deaths.
What is an infectious disease? Disease that is contagious
Infection always refers to ______. Growth
What does chronic mean? Acute? Chronic – Ongoing/Continual
Acute – Come and gone / temporary
What is a pandemic? Epidemic & Endemic, Pandemic = worldwide
Epidemic = One area
Endemic = Always there (Colds)
Epidemiologists report on the _____ and Incidence and Prevalence
_____ of disease.

28
Incidence is defined as… Total # of existing cases over a given
amount of time
Prevalence is The total number of cases of a disease in a
given population at a specific time.
Incidence is Extent or frequency of occurrence
How can you tell if someone is a carrier? They don’t look sick, you can’t really tell
Who was Mary Malone? What was her She was a cook that had Salmonella in Gall
story? bladder = infected the food she prepared
b/c she failed to wash hands. Many people
died from typhoid fever, exiled her to
island and where she eventually died.
Where does the staph pathogen reside in a In their nose, but mostly in the mucous
carrier? membrane
How does the staph pathogen get Through contact with infected fluids
transmitted? Where could this cause Can cause serious problems in hospitals
problems? and even daycare facilities.
How would one test foe the carrier? MSA test
In the incubation stage you will feel… Sick a little bit
In the acute stage you will feel… major symptoms, = highest # of pathogens
At the highest level of antibody you begin Convalescent (defined as somebody
the _______ stage. recovering from a period of illness)
In general, why does the incubation stage 1. The immune response is what is the
take the same amount of time, for different same in individuals regardless of
people, regardless of the type of pathogen? the illness.
How could this be diminished? 2. If someone has memory cells and
are immunity to the specific
pathogen (may not get sick at all)
What does Mortality mean? incidence of death in a population
Define morbidity… refers to frequency of disease incl. fatal +
nonfatal (Defines health of a population)
Resevoirs are where you find… the infectious stages
Clostridium is able to live in the dirt its ability to make spores
because of
What is the reservoir for leprosy? Caused armadillos not leprechauns
by what? Caused by Mycobacterium leprea
Zoonosis occurs when… A disease that primarily infects animals but
occasionally is passed to humans

An example of Zoonosis would be … Anthrax – From Cows

Lyme Disease – from ticks, deer/rodents
What is the resevoir for Lyme disease? Deer
Ticks are the Vector
What is the difference between reservoir Reservoir = Where pathogen lives and
and a vector? thrives
Vector = What carries pathogen

29
 Biology 261 (exam 04) : Class 36 (6th class of exam 04) - Wednesday – 04-21-10
Epidemology
(Chapter 33)

WEBSITE ANIMATION:

Epidemiology: Occurrence of Disease – 01:35

[Link]

End of Website Animation – 03:39

What is prevalence? Number of cases (of disease)

Expected prevalence is based on what? Patterns
Sporadic means what? Just a few cases every once in a while
Endemic means what? Always there
Epidemic means what? Increased numbers in one specific area
Pandemic means what? Epidemic that goes on various continents

WEBSITE ANIMATION:

Transmission: Epidemiology:
Transmission of Diseases – 04:45
[Link]

End of Website Animation – 07:20

Direct host-to-host transmission = has Between host and pathogen

direct contact b/w what and what?
Give 2 examples of direct transmission. Flu and sexually transmitted diseases
What type of infection is ringworms? Fungal
Common reservoir for ringworms = ? Cat
What type of transmission is common with Direct H2H
ringworms?
How do they diagnose ringworms? Take cat and put it in a dark room / fungus
will fluoresce
Indirect H2H transmission implies that the Host => to somewhere else => to new host
pathogen will go from the host to what and
then to what?
What are the 2 main ways to get indirect 1. vectors
H2H transmission are what? 2. fomites
What do vectors do? Carry (ie: plasmid)
What would be vectors for disease Mosquitoes, fleas, ticks, etc
transmission?
30
What does the mosquito do pertaining to Bites a person with malaria, pick up the
malaria? blood, and bite someone else = infects
them
What is a non-living agent food H2H 1. fomites
transmission called? What are some 2. drinking glass, toys in day care,
examples? tissues, etc
Major epidemics are usually classified as 1. common source epidemics
what 2 types? 2. Host to Host epidemics
One of the most common way to spread Indirect H2H transmission with remote
infections in a hospital is by way of what? controls and doctor’s ties
What is an example of a common source Picnic and everyone starts to get sick
epidemic? (wedding reception, etc)
Host to Host epidemics will tell you what? Can trace the spread of the transmission of
the disease (can be traced back to ONE
person)
What spreads encephalitis? Mosquitos
What is encephalitis? Swelling of brain caused by virus
(normally…although there is bacterial also)
Encephalitis is the what? Meningitis is the 1. brain
what? 2. meninges
Number of cases is what? Prevalence or incidence
What is the goal of vaccine programs? Herd immunity
Viruses have to have a what? Host (isolate sick = stop the spread and
possibly get rid of virus)
Where is cholera found? Water contaminated with feces
The resistance of a group to infection due Herd immunity
to immunity of a high proportion of the
members of the group is what?
Does everyone have to get vaccinated to No
achieve herd immunity?
There is now no more incidence of what Smallpox
disease?
What disease is next to be eradicated? Polio
Aseptic technique deals with maintaining Physical barrier
what kind of barrier?
The diagnosed cases of AIDS peaked 1992-1993
when?
Why did the incidence of cases level off? Most likely due to education
How do you protect yourself from getting Having a physical barrier between yourself
infected? and the virus
Who is at highest risk for contracting the 1. Gay men
AIDS virus in men? Women? 2. Heterosexual women
When someone goes to the hospital for Nosocomial infection (most commonly
surgery and comes back for staph it is said associated with nursing homes and
that they have contracted what infection? hospitals)
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 WEBSITE ANIMATION:

Nosocomial Infection: Overview – 23:45

[Link]

End of Website Animation – 25:44

What is the most common nosocomial 1. urinary infections

infection? Why? 2. due largely to catheters (when
someone is placing the catheter and
happens to touch the skin, etc first
then you have just inoculated their
bladder)
What normally grows in the bladder? Nothing…this is a sterile body site
Why is urine a good growth media? It has nutrients (water, nitrogen, glucose,
salts), right temp, no competition
Why else may someone contract a Surgery b/c there is a break in the skin
nosocomial infection in a hospital? (think also about giving an IV)

WEBSITE ANIMATION:

Nosocomial Infection: Prevention – 27:04

[Link]

End of Website Animation – 29:06

What’s the most important thing to do to Wash hands with soap and water (we do
prevent the spreading of nosocomial not need to use disinfectant soap)
infections?
Soap is a what? Degermer (it allows for the ‘lifting’ and
washing of bacteria off of skin)
What do gloves provide? Physical barrier
What is the morphology of enterobacter? Gram – rod
Where is enterobacter found? Normal flora of GI tract
What makes people susceptible to Staying in bed which may allow for fluid
pneumonia in a hospital? buildup in the lungs
What’ the reservoir for the following:
1. leprosy 1. armadillos
2. rabies 2. wild animals
What are the common controls against the Quarantined (isolated), Immunization, and
reservoir concerning the spread of disease? Treated

32
What are the common controls against the Immunization, Quarantine, Surveillance,
pathogen concerning the spread of disease? and pathogen Eradication (mosquitos)
People with which diseases may be Leprosy, Malaria, Tuberculosis, Dyptheria
quarantined? (a quarantined person cannot spread
disease to someone else)
Fever means what? Infection
The person who has fever is what? Contagious and can spread disease (recall
SARS outbreak and thermal sensors being
used in airports as control measure)
The leading cause of death in the US is 1. CVD in US
what? In Africa? (based on 2002 data) 2. Infectious in Africa
Emergent means that numbers do what? Come up and go down
What does reemergent mean? Numbers come up again
Biological weapons are organisms or toxins Easy to produce and deliver (ie: aerosoled)
that are what?
What is probably the most common 1. anthrax = most common
bioterrorism weapon? Most deadly? 2. botulism = most deadly
Why is anthrax such a good weapon? Endospores (aerosol easily, breathed in, get
down into lungs, regerminate, make toxin
that kills you)
How else could someone get anthrax? 1. Cutaneous anthrax (come into
contact with it)
2. Gastrointestinal anthrax (ingest)
3. Pulmonary anthrax (aerosoled and
breathed in)

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 Biology 261 (exam 04) : Class 37 (7th class of exam 04) - Friday – 04-23-10
(Chapter 34)

WEBSITE ANIMATION:

Epidemiology: Occurrence of Disease – 01:35

[Link]

End of Website Animation – 03:39

The air is a good place to spread what? Disease

The most flora are located in what part of Upper respiratory tract (normal flora)
the respiratory tract?
What are located in the LRT? If anything’s here it’s a pathogen that’s
gonna cause a disease
STREP:
1. morphology 1. Gram + cocci in chains
2. catalase reaction 2. catalase –
3. hemolysis 3. pyogenes = beta hemolytic
4. additional way to distinguish strep (complete hemolysis in blood agar)
pyogenes from other beta hemolytic 4. Strep pyogenes is sensitive to
strep = what? bacitracin
What is catalase? Enzyme that breaks down H2O2
What happens in a catalase + reaction? Bubbles
STAPH:
1. morphology 1. Gram – cocci in clusters
2. catalase reaction 2. catalase + (bubbles)
What causes strep throat? Strep pyogenes
What else can Strep pyogenes cause? Impetigo (skin infection)
Is there another organism that can cause Yes, Staphylococcus aureus
impetigo?
What is another skin infection produced by syphilis
Strep pyogenes?
Pathogenic organisms can get infected by Lysogenic bacteriophage
what kind of bacteriophage?
Lysogenic means what? That it is latent (viral DNA in bacterial
chromosome)
A bacteriophage is a virus that affects bacteria
what?
What is located on the viral DNA? The genes for making the toxin
A phage is a what? Virus
What does Strep pyogenes cause? Strep throat

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What are some sequelae infections of Strep Scarlet fever, impetigo, cellulites,
pyogenes? rheumatic fever
What can invasive sequelae infections 1. Toxic shock syndrome
result in? How does this happen? 2. Strep pyogenes can become
infected with a lysogenic
bacteriophage (which has genes for
the toxin in its DNA). Strep will
produce this toxin ONLY IF it is
infected by this bacteriophage.
(toxin becomes expressed as
sequelae infections)
Strep pneumoniae is where? LRT
Strep pneumoniae description = ? Why is 1. Gram + cocci in chains WITH
the capsule important? Is Strep CAPSULE
pneumoniae a group A strep? Strep 2. this is how it able to avoid being
pneumoniae are ____ hemolytic? killed by neutrophils and
macrophages
3. No. The only group A strep are
Strep pyogenes.
4. alpha [partial] (which is strange b/c
pathogens are normally beta [or
total] hemolytic)
What causes dyptheria? Corynebacterium dyptheria
What gram rxn are dyptheria? Gram + rods that DO NOT make spores
What is unique to the Corynebacterium? Metachromatic granules (Chinese letters)
What are the spore forming that are gram + Clostridium and Bacillus
rods?
Does dyptheria also have a lysogenic 1. yes
bacteriophage associated with it? What 2. causes tissue damage in throat
does it do? causing a pseudomembrane which
will close off the trachea and
suffocate you
Is dyptheria contagious? Yes. It is a respiratory disease and is
spread through the air.
What is the vaccine for dyptheria? DPT
What kind of a vaccine is this? Polyvalent vaccine
Pertussis is commonly called what? Whooping cough
What causes pertussis? Bordetella pertussis
What is the morphology of Bordetella Gram – rod
pertussis?
What special media is used to identify this Cough plate (special media that people just
organism? cough on and the organism will grow)
What indirect test can also be used to Fluorescent AB test
identify this organism?

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What diseases are caused by Tuberculosis and leprosy
mycobacterium?
What is another name for leprosy? Hansen’s disease
What should you think of when you think Acid-fast (has mycoic acids which make it
of mycobacterium? waxy and hard to kill)
Do mycobacterium grow quickly or Slowly (one may have this for years and
slowly? years and not know until having a chest x-
ray one day)
Where do mycobacterium live? Inside of macrophages (actually grow
inside of them b/c their waxy cell walls
make them difficult to kill)
What kind of sample does one need to test Sputum sample
for tuberculosis?
What drug is specific for mycobacterium? Isoniazid
How long should one take this Antibiotic Nine months (need to take so long b/c it’s
for treatment of tuberculosis? so hard to kill)
What kind of a drug is Isoniazid? Nucleoside analog
What is the reservoir for leprosy? Armadillos
Is leprosy contagious? Yes
How is leprosy spread? Respiratory or direct contact
What type of culture does the organism that It does NOT grow in culture
causes leprosy grow in?
What type of agar is used for Neisseria? Chocolate agar
What causes leprosy? Mycobacterium Leprae (it likes the
coolness of the digits…this is why the
fingers and toes will fall off)
What do the meninges do? Cover the brain and spinal cord
What kind of sample do you need to test CSF (sterile body site)
for meningitis?
Is meningitis a viral disease? It is. It is also bacterial, fungal, and
protest. It is better to get the viral type b/c
it is easier to treat.
What organism causes meningitis? Neisseria
What is the gram reaction of Neisseria? Gram – diplococci
What type of media is used to grow out Chocolate agar
Neisseria?
Measles is what type of infection? Viral
Mumps is what type of infection? Viral
What does measles cause? A rash
How is mumps spread? Growth in the salivary glands
Why is mumps a problem with adult It can lead to sterility
males?
Rubella is aka what? German measles
When is rubella a problem? During pregnancies

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What kinds of diseases are measles, Viral
mumps, and rubella?
Chicken pox is what type of disease? Viral caused by herpes virus (once one has
chicken pox they have it forever)
What is the initial infection of chicken Varicella resulting in ‘the pox’
pox?
How is it spread? By respiratory droplets
What happens after the pox disappear? The virus becomes latent and goes into the
nerves.
What form does Varicella come back as Varicella Zoster (usually around head or
after the first expression? trunk)
What does Varicella Zoster cause? Shingles
Is someone with shingles contagious? Yes. But one would be get chicken pox
and not shingles if it is spread.
Common colds are caused by what? Rhinovirus (remember that a Rhinocerus
has a big nose)
What does coronavirus cause? SARS
What do adenovirus cause? Cold like symptoms (affect the adenoids)
Colds are where and the flu is where? Colds are in the nose and the flu is all over
the body
Flu symptoms are what? Systemic (whole body hurts and you have
fever)
Flu is caused by what? Influenza virus (groups A, B, and C)
The flu vaccine will cause our body to IgA
make what vaccine?
What does this mean? IgA in secretions which will neutralize flu
virus and not allow it to get into respiratory
tract at which point macrophages will come
and eat it up
Does the flu virus mutate? Yes
What type of virus is the flu (RNA/DNA)? RNA
A major shift in the virus is called an 1. shift
antigenic what? Minor? 2. drift

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