Biology 261 (exam 03) : Class 21 (class after exam 02) - 03-08-10

Fungi grow in microscopic thread-like Hyphae

structures called what?
____ and ____ make up the kingdom Fungi Yeasts and molds
Are Fungi eukaryotic or prokaryotic? Eukaryotic = cells have nuclei
Fungi are _____ feeders. What does this 1. absorption
mean? 2. remain attached to food source
The cell walls of Fungi is made of what? 1. chitin
Why is this important? 2. important b/c, as absorption
feeders, they secrete enzymes that
break down cellulose and lignin in
logs, etc. easily. Therefore, their
cell walls must be made of
something else.
What is the primary job of fungi? Decomposers
How do fungi eat? Absorption feeders
What’s the fuzzy stuff that’s seen w/ fungi? Hyphae
What is chitin? Polysaccharide = derivative of glucose
What type of fungi lived before there was Chytrids (‘evolved’ around 600 million
land / plants? years ago)
What is unique about chytrids? Aquatic
What are the cell walls of chytrids made Chitin (this indicates that they belong to
of? kingdom fungi)
What is the earliest of the 4 main branches Chytrids
of kingdom fungi?
Where are chytrids found today? In aquatic environments
What do the chytrids have that no other Swimming spores (or gametes) =
group of fungi have? flagellated cells produced in ball-like
sporangia that, when released, swim off to
find another source of food
Chytrids are more closely related to ____ Animals
than plants.
A split in the fungi line occurring about Zygomycetes
500 million years ago produced what?
Where do zygomycetes live? Why are they 1. On land
important? 2. one of nature’s most important
decomposers (especially animal
feces)
What organisms primarily absorb the Zygomycetes
nutrients found in animal feces?
The _____ of zygomycetes secrete 1. hyphae
digestive enzymes and absorb the products 2. spores
of digestion, turning much of this into 3. in spore chamber (aka sporangium)
what? Where are these produced? These 4. hyphal stalk
can be found elevated on a what?

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What do we see growing on pumpkins Zygomycetes
about a week after Halloween?
Why is it virtually impossible to keep food Because zygomycete spores travel through
from spoiling? the air and land on food (start to
decompose it)
Why does a cow not eat the tall grass This is a behavior that helps cows to avoid
surrounding a dung pile? the ingestion of dangerous parasites
A common zygomycete found in a fresh Pilobolus
pile of moist cow dung is what?
How do the spores of this organism escape Pilobolus shoots its spores (its stalks “aim”
through the tall grass surrounding the dung by bending toward light source to shoot
pile in order to be ingested / carried off and through openings in surrounding grass)
excreted to new area?
How does it do this? The spore packet sits atop a pressurized
“water cannon” that aims and fires the
spores as much as 2 meters away from its
source.
What else is served by the firing of the Parasite larvae from cow gut also excreted
pilobolus spore? and, once hatched, “hitch” a ride on the
spore
What is the common bread mold called? 1. Rhizopus stolonifer
How do the spores travel? 2. through air (aerosoled)
The spores of rhizopus stolonifer are asexual reproduction
produced by sexual or asexual
reproduction?
What are the early branches of the kingdom 1. chytrids
fungi? 2. zygomycetes
What’s special about chytrids? 1. aquatic
2. have swimming spores
What are spores used for in fungi? In 1. reproduction
bacteria? 2. virulence
What are the 2 zygomycetes discussed in 1. Pilobolus
class? What’s special about these? - shoots its spores because cows do
not eat near cow dung due to
parasites

NOTE: nematode young hitch a ride

on shooting spores of pilobolus

- lives on cow dung

2. rhizopus stolonifer (= common

bread mold)
- spores easily aerosoled which
helps to spread to new areas of
bread

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What do the spores of the rhizopus 1. spores aerosoled and land on bread
stolonifer do when the bread is opened? 2. germinate and make hyphae
Once this happens, they land on the bread, (hyphae is the fuzzy stuff we see)
_____ and make _____. When it forms a 3. mycilial mat
like of this (like a big mat) in one place, it 4. spores (this is the part that is
is called a what? What is found at the end aerosoled and spreads)
of the hyphae? Is wet or dry bread better as 5. wet
a food source?
What is the fuzzy stuff we see called when hyphae
something begins to mold?
What is the most important thing to control Water (they will grow on what is its food
when attempting to control mold? source)
Are the spores in the zygomycetes haploid 1. haploid (have a + and – haploid
or diploid? Are hyphae haploid and gamete which come together to
diploid? form diploid organism)
2. haploid (go through a process
similar to mitosis (not binary fission
b/c these are eukaryotic) = they just
divide
If hyphae do not have spores, they are said sterile
to be what?
Concerning zygomycetes, what needs to + and – spores need to come together
happen to make another organism?
Where do spores of the zygomycetes In the hyphae (then they come together and
germinate? make another organism)
What are the early branches of the kingdom Chytrids and mycetes
fungi?
2 more branches of the kingdom fungi 1. Ascomycetes
evolved around 300 million years ago. 2. Basidiomycetes
What are they?
NOTE: these are mushrooms and their
relatives

What is the group of single celled fungi 1. Yeasts

that help to make bread, wine, and beer? 2. Ascomycete fungi
What are these classified as? How do these 3. by asexual division
reproduce?
What is the ascomycete that can be grown 1. penicillium
and cultured? Why is this important (ie: 2. It produces penicillin = antibody
what can it produce)? What does this 3. blocks cross linkages of PG cell
product do? What else can this organism wall in bacteria (works when the
be used for? bacteria cell is dividing / growing)
4. used to give flavor to blue cheese
(the “blue” in blue cheese)
What organism led to the beginning of Penicillium (an ascomycete in kingdom
antibiotics? fungi)

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Are most ascomycetes unicellular or 1. multicellular
multicellular? How do they reproduce? 2. sexually (with help of fruiting
bodies)
How are many ascomycete fruiting bodies Cup shaped
shaped?
What is the sack containing ascopores The ascus (this can be seen when a thin
called? section is made through the cup shaped
fruiting body of the ascomycete)
How many ascopores come from one 8 = mother and daughter are produced by
ascus? meiosis (4) and then divide again (8)
What is the advantage to the sexual It keeps shuffling the genetic deck
reproduction of ascomycetes?
What are the 2 ascomycetes discussed in 1. Saccharomyces = yeast =
class? reproduces by budding = asexual
(like binary fission but eukaryotic)
= mother and daughter cell
2. penicillium = produce penicillin =
antibiotic
What can the reproduction process of a When daughter cell buds off, a scar is left
saccharomyces help determine? which can be helpful in determining age of
cell (a lot of scar tissue = death for cell)
What is the mold that produces penicillin? 1. penicillium (mold)
What group does this organism belong to? 2. ascomycetes (mold and yeast)
What does penicillin do? Blocks cross linking of PG cell walls in
bacteria during division / growth

NOTE: works ONLY when cell is growing

What 2 things is penicillium used for? 1. forming penicillin
2. used in blue cheese
Basidiomycetes are what? Mushrooms
How does a fungi feed? Absorption feeder (attached to food source)
What is the cell wall of fungi made of? 1. Chitin = polysaccharide =
derivative of glucose
2. important because it has enzymes to
break down the cell walls found in
most of its food sources which are
made of cellulose and lignin.
Therefore, the fungi cell wall needs
to be made of something else.
What is used in fungi for reproduction? Spores
What is the fuzzy area of a fungi called? Hyphae
What are the 2 earliest branches of 1. Chytrids
kingdom fungi? 2. zygomycetes
Where can chytrids be found? Aquatic environments
Which group of kingdom fungi breaks Zygomycetes
down animal feces?

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Which group of kingdom fungi has Chytrids
swimming spores?
Are chytrids more closely related to Animals
animals or plants?
What is a sporangium and in which 1. A sporangium is a spore chamber
kingdom of fungi is it found? elevated in a hyphae stalk (this is
carried away by the wind or is fired
away from stalk)
2. found in zygomycetes
What are the 2 zygomycetes discussed in 1. pilobolus = shoots spores through
class? tall grass surrounding cow dung
pile
2. Rhizopus = spores aerosol =
common bread mold
Which zygomycete organism lives on fresh 1. Pilobolus
cow dung? How do its spores spread? 2. spores are fired away from dung
pile through openings in tall grass
surrounding it (nematodes hitch
rides sometimes)
Which zygomycete organism is referred to 1. rhizopus
as common bread mold? How do its spores 2. spores are aerosoled when bread is
spread? opened, land on bread, germinate,
make hyphae, and more spores
(moist bread better for these than
dry bread)
What is the process that a spore of the 1. spore aerosoled
rhizopus goes through to make new spores 2. land on new areas of bread
when it is aerosoled? 3. spore germinates
4. makes hyphae
5. more spores formed
What is a mycellion? Big mat of hyphae (aka mycelial mat)
What 2 groups of kingdom fungi came 1. ascomycetes = yeast and mold
later? What comprises them? 2. basidiomycetes = mushrooms
Are most ascomycetes unicellular or Multicellular
multicellular?
What is the sack called that ascomycetes 1. ascus
contain? Why does it have this sack? 2. this sack contains ascospores
Penicillium and saccharomyces belong to 1. ascomycetes
which kingdom?
What is saccharomyces? How does it 1. yeast (beer, wine, etc.)
reproduce? 2. by budding = asexual = mother and
daughter cell and scar left on
mother
What is penicillium used for? 1. to make penicillin = antibiotic
2. for blue cheese
What is the mushroom that we see for? Visible fruiting body of fungus

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How do you know by looking at a White underneath (vs. black)
mushroom if it is poisonous?
What relationship some of the organisms of Mycorhizal association = relationship of
the kingdom fungi form with trees? mycelium of mushroom and roots of trees

NOTE: this is a specific partnership and

explains why some trees have only
particular types of mushrooms found
growing on them
The ascomycetes that have the ascus are True ascomycetes
the what?
What do basidiomycetes have instead of an Basidio (aka mushroom)
ascus?
How long ago did kingdom fungi evolve? Over 650 million years ago
What kind of mushrooms do you never Ones with white gills (instead of black gills
want to eat? underneath like found in pizza)
What are the four main branches of the 1. Chytrid (aquatic, swimming spores,
kingdom fungi and what are the sub earliest group, more closely related
branches we looked at in class? to animals than plants)
2. Zygomycetes
a. pilobolus (decomposes feces,
shooting spores)
b. rhizopus (common bread mold,
form mycelium, controlled by
H2O content)
3. Ascomycetes (most multicellular,
true ones have ascus)
a. saccharomyces (yeast, reproduce
by budding = asexual = mother /
daughter cells = leaves scars used
for age determination)
b. penicillium (produces penicillin
and used in blue cheese)
4. Basidiomycetes (mushrooms, form
mycorhizal association with trees)
Basidio = Mushroom that we see (= “club shaped”)
Lichens rely on food that is a product of Photosynthesis (by hosting tiny green algae
what? forming a symbiotic relationship…or
cyanobacteria)
What type of fungus is normally found as Ascomycete
part of a lichen?
What are the 2 partnerships of lichens? 1. fungi + cyanobacteria
2. fungi + algae
T or F: Some lichens reproduce asexually True
by shedding little clumps of cells that
contain both species.

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T or F: Lichens grow quickly False. Lichens tend to grow very slowly.
T or F: any lichen can grow in almost any False. Lichens have very specific nutrient
environment. needs and grow in specific areas.
What function does the fungi perform in its 1. anchorage
role of a lichen? Algi or cyanobacteria? 2. providing nutrients through
photosynthesis

NOTE: algae = photosynthesis (glucose)

and cyanobacteria = photosynthesis (N2
fixation = heterocyst)

What is a mycorhizal association? The relationship b/w the mycelium of

mushrooms (basidiomyces) and the roots of
trees

NOTE: these can be very large covering

1000’s of square miles underground

What is the most familiar kingdom in Basidiomyces (mushrooms)

phylum fungi?
What mushroom is very deadly? What is 1. Aminita
its common name? 2. angel of death (or death angel)
Myco refers to what? Fungus
Mycology is what? Study of fungus
Mushrooms are really the what of the fungi Fruiting body of fungus (elevated platform
that we see? for launching spores)
Where is most of the basidiomyces fungus Underground
found?
NOTE: activity focused on outside edge
which explains “fairy rings”

What are some of the largest (and possibly) The mycelium of some fungi
oldest living organisms on Earth?
Are fungi eukaryotic or prokaryotic? Eukaryotic
What media is mold grown on? Sab Dex
Stinkhorns are a type of what? Basidiomyces (attract flies which pick up
spores and bring them to new area)
What is special about lichens? Symbiotic partnership b/w fungi (anchor)
and:
1. algi (photosynthesis – glucose)
2. cyanobacteria (photosynthesis – N2
fixation = heterocyst)
Lichens tend to grow ___ and be very ___. Slowly / old
Association b/w fungus and roots = ? Mycorhyzzial association (“rhyzo” = roots)
What does the hyphae of a mycorhyzzial Rhizoids = jagged extensions of hyphae
fungus have that helps distinguish it? underneath spore at base of stalk

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What toxin in similar to LSD? Where can 1. Ergot toxin
this be found? 2. found in basidiomycetes
What are some common names of 1. mushrooms
basidiomycetes? 2. smuts
3. rusts
4. stinkhorns
5. puffballs
What is the dangerous mushroom to eat? Amanita (= “angel of death”)
What are 3 ways to get infected by fungi? 1. allergies = no carpet is better
2. infection
a. yeast infection
- yeast infection of GI tract
- yeast infection of mouth = thrush
b. dermatophyte = live on hair, skin,
and nails = athlete’s foot / nail
fungus
3. toxin = must be ingested / inhaled
What are people allergic to? To the spores (because made of protein)
What are the most common fungi 1. Cladosporium
association with allergies? 2. Aspergillus
3. Mucor
What do you not want in your house if you Carpet
have allergies?
What is the most common problem with Allergies
molds or fungi?
What causes infection? Pathogens
What are some common pathogens? What 1. Candida albicans
type of yeast is this? What can it cause? 2. dimorphic yeast (means has yeast
form and mold form)
3. causes:
a. yeast infection
b. thrush = yeast infection of mouth
Why would someone taking antibiotics be Antibiotics kill good bacteria in GI tract
more prone to a yeast infection? which could lead to diarrhea and yeast over
grow
It is recommended that people eat what Yogurt because it has live culture in it
when taking antibiotics? (bacteria prevent yeast from being able to
colonize and grow)
A toxin must be what to cause an infection? Ingested or inhaled
Can a toxin be aerosoled to cause an No evidence supports this
infection?

Biology 261 (exam 03) : Class 22 - 03-10-10

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What kind of fungi is stachybotrys? What 1. mold
is commonly called and where is this 2. “black mold” commonly found in
normally a big deal? Can it be aerosoled people’s homes
easily? 3. No. This is a wet mold and can’t
aerosol easily. Best remediation is
cleaning with bleach or covering in
plastic and removing source of
mold: ie: ceiling tile (which is its
food).
How can a mold cause an infection? 1. allergies
2. aerosols
3. toxins
What type of mold might aerosol easily 1. Aspergillus
making it easier to spread? 2. Rhizopus (bread mold)
How can a toxin cause an infection? Must be ingested or inhaled (no research
supporting toxins that can be aerosoled)
Is stachybotrys a dry mold or wet mold? 1. wet mold
Why is this important? 2. does not aerosol easily
What is the main problem with Aspergillis? Allergies. Aspergillis aerosols easily and
those allergic to protein of spores are easily
affected. If this is in someone’s house, the
allergen needs to be physically removed
by:
1. air purifier / filter
2. take out carpet
Does an allergy get better or worse over Worse. 1st time may not have any
time? symptoms or few symptoms. Additional
exposure will get worse.
Will a person without an allergy develop No. One must be allergic (although 1st
one? exposure may not cause symptoms)
What two types of mold are strong 1. Aspergillis
allergins? 2. Clodsporium

NOTE: these both aerosol easily

How can someone kill mold? With 5% bleach

When dealing with mold, what is the 1st Figure out where water is coming from.
thing that one must do? Food source is where it is growing (ie:
ceiling tile has plant material and fungi are
decomposers, etc)
What toxin does Aspergillis produce? 1. Alpha toxin
Where can this be found? What is the 2. grows a lot on peanuts
problem with these? 3. alpha toxins are carcinogens
All carcinogenic alpha toxins must be ___? Ingested
Are toxins and antibiotics primary 1. secondary metabolites

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metabolites or secondary metabolites? 2. means that grow when glucose all
What does this mean? used up and cell not actively
growing
T or F: If we have a mold problem, we will True.
see it.
The large scale production of Industrial microbiology = take organism
microorganisms is what? and exploit to make product = profit
What are the main organisms used for this? 1. fungi
2. streptomyces
Why is it important that an organism can b/c spores can easily be stored over a very
produce spores for industrial long period of time = cheap, convenient,
microbiology? produces product quickly
Why should a microbe used for industrial b/c this causes disease and can get workers
MB not be pathogenic? sick, etc.
Many times, an organism is what to Mutated
produce a desired product in industrial MB.
What is an actinomycete? Bacteria that looks like a mold
What are streptomyces? What do they 1. Type of actinomycete
produce? Where can they be found? 2. make streptomycin = antibiotic
3. in soil - fresh cut grass / dirt smell =
smelling geosin
Where is one of the best places to look for In the soil
organisms that make antibiotics?
What can we do with spores? Stored in powder form
What are the products of industrial MB? 1. microbial cells (ie: yeast for making
bread or wine)
2. enzymes (ie: protease = meat
tenderizer, amylase = breaks down
starch to glucose and maltose =
makes candy sweeter)
3. antibiotics (steroids, alkaloids)
4. food additives (ie: MSG)
5. commodities (ie: ethanol, citric
acid, etc.)
What is the name of the yeast that gets used saccharomyces
all the time?
What are 2 types of microbial cells specific 1. saccharomyces = yeast (bread,
to Industrial MB? wine, etc.)
2. bacillus thuringiensis = spore
former = natural pesticide (sprinkle
on tomato plants, etc and bacteria
affects larvae stage of bugs that get
on plants and kill them)
What is protease? What is it used in the 1. Enzyme that breaks down protein
market for? 2. meat tenderizer
What is amylase? What is it used in the 1. enzyme that breaks down starch to

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market for? glucose and maltose
2. makes things sweeter (like candy)
3.
What is the natural penicillin made by Antibiotic = Penicillin-G
penicillium?
What is amphicillin? Antibiotic = Pink penicillin = semi-
synthetic drug = they take penicillin-G in
lab and change one of side chains
What is methicillin? Antibiotic = MRSA (methicillum resistant
staphylococcus aureus)
What is MRSA? Is this good or bad? How 1. see above
does this spread? 2. bad b/c methicillin resistant so
methicillin will not kill it (need
another drug to kill it)
3. by direct contact with organism
What is the main food additive produced? 1. MSG (monosodium glutamate)
What is it used for? 2. used for flavor / preservative
What is lysine? Amino acid made in high quantities by
industry for food preservation
What is citric acid added to food for? Food preservative
What do acids do to food and how is this 1. lower pH
used by industry? 2. helps preserve food b/c bacteria like
to grow near neutral pH
Commodities are things made in what? bulk
When is ethanol produced in industrial During fermentation
MB?
What is the cell of yeast (due to its Able to take substrate and changes it to
enzymes) able to do for industrial MB? another end product (ie: steroids like
cortisone or cortisol)
When bacteria or fungi grow, what 2 things 1. Primary metabolite = produced
are produced and when? while organism is growing (ie:
ethanol, alcohol)
2. Secondary metabolite = produces
when organism is in stationary
phase (ie: antibiotics)

Are antibiotics primary or secondary secondary

metabolites?
Are secondary metabolites necessary for No. These are produced when organism
growth? goes into stationary phase.
What do you want your cells to do when Keep growing b/c alcohol only made
making alcohol? during cell growth
What will be made by cells during Vinegar
anaerobic growth?
What percentage of a primary metabolite None. These are produced by the
would we find in the media used to grow organisms and do not need to be present in

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an organism? the media.
The curve that shows primary and Diauxic curve
secondary metabolite production is called a
what?
When a diauxic curve enters the stationary Gene is induced (induction) b/c there was
phase what is happening to the secondary no more glucose and it needed to start
metabolite gene. using other energy source
When does penicillin start to produce in the Produced after cells enter stationary phase
curve? = secondary metabolite
Novobiocin and polymyxin are 2 types of Antibiotics
what?
What is the vessel called where the MB 1. fermentor
process takes place in fermentation? How 2. very small to very large
large are these?
What is the secondary metabolite 1. antibiotic
produced? When does this happen? 2. cells can produce this when they
enter stationary phase
A fermentor controls everything that 1. growth
affects what? What is added to help 2. buffer
facilitate the control of pH? Is this done in 3. yes
real time?
NOTE: cells need to also be taken out as
they grow (= increase in numbers) so it
does not overflow

What is the transfer of a process from a 1. Scale-up

small laboratory scale to large-scale 2. biochemical engineers
commercial equipment? Who facilitates 3. $
this process? What’s the bottom line?

Biology 261 (exam 03) : Class 23 - 03-12-10

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An antibiotic, by definition is a what 1. compound
produced by one organism against what? 2. another organism
The most common organisms that make 1. Fungi
antibiotics are what? What is an example 2. penicillium
of this?
What are the two types of fungi? 1. molds
2. yeasts
Penicillium is a what? Mold (makes penicillin which is antibiotic)
The bacteria that makes antibiotics is what? 1. streptomyces
This type of bacteria is referred to as a 2. actinomycete
what? The antibiotic produced is called 3. streptomycin
what?
Is an actinomycete gram + or -? What is its 1. gram +
morphology? Where can they be found 2. rod
typically? 3. soil
What else makes antibiotics besides fungi 1. bacteria
and actinomycetes? Where can these be 2. in soil (dirt)
found? Are these typically aerobic or 3. aerobic
anaerobic? Makes spores or not? Gram + 4. makes spores
or -? Morphology = ? What is it called? 5. gram +
What is the antibiotic produced? 6. rod
7. bacillus
8. bacitracin

NOTE: person it was isolated from was

called Tracy so they called it bacitracin

What do you have to do to find antibiotic 1. look for them / culture them
producers? Where would you do this? 2. in the dirt
Streptomycete is a bacteria called what? 1. actinomycete
What is the antibiotic it produces? Where 2. streptomycin
are these typically found? 3. soil
What is an aerobic, gram + rod that lives in 1. bacillus
the dirt? What is an example an antibiotic 2. bacitracin
produced by these?
In the screening technique used to try to 1. dilutions
find antibiotic producers, a gram of soil is 2. diluting it
added to 1ml of water. This is called what? 3. put on media = chance to grow
What is happening with each transfer? 4. incubated
Where would you eventually put this and 5. b/c temp. of dirt is probably cooler
why? There are _____ for 5-7 days at than room temp and therefore a
room temperature. Why would this not be temp. of 37C would not select for it
done at body temperature? What would to grow.
you expect to happen? 6. bunch (lower dilutions) to just 1
What would you do once this is achieved? 1. overlay with a broth culture of
What do the bacteria do? Some of the bacteria that’s been grown

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bacteria have clear spaces around them… 2. grow and form a lawn
what is this called? What was inhibited? 3. zones of inhibition
Why? What do we know about the 4. growth of the bacteria
colonies with these zones around them? 5. colony from soil produced
What can we do with these? antibiotics that killed bacteria that
was poured on top of it
6. they make antibiotics
7. pick them, grow them, isolate
antibiotic and get new antibiotic
Placques are for what? Viruses (do not confuse with zones of
inhibition for bacteria)
A test in which an suspected antibiotic 1. cross streak method
producer is streaked across the bottom of a 2. resistant to the antibiotic that the
plate, incubated to permit growth, and is organism produces
then cross-streaked with test organisms is 3. sensitive to the antibiotic
called what? Streaked test organisms that
grow all the way to antibiotic are what?
What would a zone of inhibition in the
growth of a test organism indicate?
Which science is generally involved with Chemistry
Antibiotic purification and extraction?
Which antibodies are produced a lot? 1. penicillins
What are special about these? What does 2. they contain B-lactam ring
that mean? 3. bacteria that are resistant to
penicillin produce B-lactamase (=
enzyme) that breaks B-lactam ring
Why would a bacteria be resistant to They produce B-lactamase which is a
penicillin? enzyme that breaks down the B-lactam ring
in structure of the penicillin. Therefore, the
penicillin has no negative effect on the
bacteria.
Why would penicillin be effective against b/c penicillin acts on cell wall and gram +
gram + organisms? have fat PG wall (penicillin acts on making
of cell wall)
What is the natural penicillin? What 1. penicillin G
produces this? 2. made by penicillium chrysogenum
Amphicillin, amoxicillin, and methicillin Penicillin G
are derivatives of what?
Is penicillin a primary or secondary Secondary (made when cells in stationary
metabolite? phase)
How many intermediates are used when 1. 72 different intermediates
making tetracycline? What is tetracycline? 2. antibiotic
Why is it called chlorotetrocycline? 3. 4 ring structures with chlorine
attached to 1st one
In addition to antibiotics, microorganisms 1. vitamins (2nd in sales after antibio)
are also used to make what? What is an 2. vitamin B12

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example of this?
What is one advantage of having Gram – They make vitamins (like riboflavin or
organisms as natural flora in our gut? B12) & is then absorbed into blood stream
What is the amino acid probably made in 1. MSG
the highest quantity? What are these used 2. food additives
for?
What are aspartame and phenylalaline used 1. Nutrasweet (sweetener)
for? Who needs to be careful about this 2. those with PKU = do not have
product? enzyme to break down
phenylalanine
Lysine is an amino acid used for what? 1. food additive
How is it made? 2. made b/c they block feedback
inhibition (cells make A.A. when
they need it = plenty in media =
lysine binds to enzyme to block it)
Trytophan, lysine, thymine, and MSG are Amino acids
examples of what used in the food
industry?
What is a product that can be made Steroids
chemically or by microorganisms?
Steroids are derivatives of what? Give an 1. Sterols
example of when these might be used. 2. microbe produces steroid to change
progesterone to
hydroxyprogesterone. Once this is
done, it can be transformed to
cortisone in lab.

NOTE: microbe has to do initial

transformation in this case

What is it called when a bacteria uses their Biotransformation

enzymes to change the chemistry of a
substance that can then be further
developed in the lab (not a chemical thing
at first)?
Exoenzymes are enzymes that are what? 1. secreted
Why would bacteria make these? What are 2. to break down food in their
some examples of how these can be used in environment (like proteins,
industry? starches, and fats = things too big to
be taken directly into cell)
Lipase: What kind of bacteria are these 3. examples include:
isolated from? What does this mean a. protease = break down proteins =
in meat tenderizer and laundry
detergent
b. amylase = break down starch
c. lipase = break down fat

15
 4. alkaliphilic bacteria
5. base loving (laundry detergent is
slippery and is therefore alkaline)
When something is alkalinic, it is what? Slippery
Why would one want to isolate these b/c they function in an alkaline pH
enzymes from alkaliphilic bacteria? (detergent has alkaline pH for instance)
In what pH do our enzymes function? Around neutral
What is an important use of amylases and High fructose corn syrup
glucoamylases?
What is fructose? Isomer of glucose (sweeter than glucose)
What are cellulases going to do? Where? 1. break down cellulose
What will it be good for? 2. plants
3. get out grass stains
What is Rennin? Enzyme used to make cheese (used to
coagulate the milk)
Why would someone need lactose? If they are lactose intolerant
What would happen to someone with this They would get lots of gas b/c the lactose is
condition if they eat ice cream? not broken down and gets used by bacteria
in intestines (producing acid + gas)
What do lipases do? What are they useful 1. break down fat
for? 2. getting out grease stains
Enzymes that function at extreme 1. extremozymes
temperatures are called what? What 2. extremophiles
produces these?
What industries might use enzymes? 1. paper
2. fabric
3. food
Wine is made from what process? This 1. fermentation
happens with the what in the grapes? What 2. sugar
ferments this? It takes the sugar out of the 3. saccharomyces (yeast)
fruit and turns it into what? What makes 4. ethanol
white wine white and red wine red? Which 5. color of the skin of the grape
wine is aged longer? What makes a wine 6. red
sweet or dry? A longer fermentation 7. amount of sugar (sweet wines have
process would produce a what? Why is more sugar)
wine aged? What are grapes called when 8. drier wine b/c less sugar left
they are crushed? 9. to get rid of some of the volatile
chemicals produced during
fermentation (tastes better)
10. “must”
Grapes have natural wild what? Yeast (this is the dusty look on grapes)
How do we get rid of this? Use sulfur dioxide to kill wild yeast
What then happens to the grapes? Inoculate must (crushed grapes) w/ wine
yeast (saccharomyces)
Saccharomyces is the what of the name? Genus
What is happening during the fermentation Yeast is making ethanol

16
process after must is inoculated with
saccharomyces?
What happens after fermentation of wine? Let it age, filter it, bottle it, and drink it
Which wine is typically aged longer? Red wine
What is the difference in wine and 1. Champagne has bubbles (coming
champagne? How does this happen? from CO2)
2. allow secondary fermentation in
bottle (turn bottle upside down,
yeast are on bottom and ferment,
CO2 stays in, and drain yeast off)
Brewing is making what? Beer and distilled liquors
What kind of yeast is used for brewing? 1. saccharomyces (yeast)
These can be of 2 types. What are they and 2. These are:
what do they produce? These 2 types are a. top fermenters = ales
what of the same organism? b. bottom fermenters = lagers
3. different strains of same organism

What’s the difference b/w beer, wine, and 1. amount of alcohol

distilled alcohol (vodka, etc)? How is this 2. by distilling it
increased? What % alcohol can be attained 3. 4%
naturally? Why? 4. higher than this = kill the yeast
How is something distilled? Boiled (alcohol comes off 1st because it’s
lighter (then water) and, when put back in
= increase alcohol concentration)
Whiskey, rum, and brandy are all examples Distilled beverages
of what?
Gasohol has what mixed with gasoline? Ethanol
What is vinegar? What primarily makes it? 1. 3% acetic acid
2. acetobacter
What would you end up with if your wine vinegar
got contaminated with acetobacter?
What is citric acid used for? What 1. preservative
organism produces this? Where would one 2. Aspergillus niger
find this organism? Is this a primary or 3. mold on ceiling tiles
secondary metabolite? 4. secondary
What is one of the main types of cells that Yeast
gets used for supplements, bread making,
animal feed, and fermentation?
Yeast are a really good source of which B and D
vitamins?
Why does bread rise? Yeast ferments sugar (starch) (or “eats” it)
and gives off gas (CO2)
NOTE: ethanol also made but evaporates
when it is baked
Why is sour dough bread sour? In addition to yeast, it has lactobacillis that
takes sugar and makes lactic acid (= sour)

17
 NOTE: this is same concept of what
happens when milk is used to make yogurt

Shitake mushrooms are found where? Growing on hardwood logs

Mushrooms with what are the ones we 1. white gills
want to stay away from? What is a specific 2. amanita
one (angel of death)?
What are the 2 main mushrooms that we 1. shitake (grow on hardwood logs
can eat? like oak)
2. agaricus bisporus = most common

Biology 261 (exam 03) : Class 24 - 03-15-10

18
The use of living organisms for industrial Biotechnology
or commercial applications is what?
What does an organism have if it’s been 1. Foreign gene
genetically modified? Once isolated, what 2. cloned or put into a plasmid which
happens to it? is then transformed into a bacteria
like [Link]
How does [Link] produce insulin? Where 1. foreign gene is transcribed and
does insulin go? translated (= makes insulin)
2. goes into media
Gentic engineering allows for the cloning Eukaryotic genes in prokaryotes (like
and expression of what genes in what? bacteria)
Introns are part of what? mRNA
Exons are part of what? mRNA
What do exons code for? Protein
What happens to the introns? Get cut out
Do bacteria have introns and exons? What 1. No. Mammalian cells do.
consideration might this cause? 2. Mammalian cells put into bacteria
may or may not work. When genes
are cloned, they are cloned with the
introns out b/c the bacteria would
transcribe and translate the introns.
When mammalian genes are cloned into 1. introns
bacteria, what is left out? Why? 2. b/c intron will be coded also which
will change the desired protein
What process is used when cloning a 1. Reverse transcriptase (RNA to
mammalian gene into a bacteria? What is DNA)
done with the product of this process? 2. cloned DNA and put into plasmid
What is the 1st thing you should do if you 1. figure out the sequence of the
started with the protein instead of the gene? amino acids
How could you do this? What would this 2. techniques involving
give you? What process could be used electrophoresis
from here? What could be synthesized to 3. this would give mRNA sequence
the DNA? What would this provide? (A.A. will have codons which will
What’s the problem with this process? give you mRNA)
4. reverse transcriptase (take this RNA
to make DNA)
5. complimentary strand
6. gene
7. figuring out if you have the right
codon (but it will still make the
same protein)

What are some of the problems in trying to 1. degradation by intracellular

put eukaryotic cells into prokaryotic cells? proteases (enzymes during protein

19
 synthesis part may break it down =
make it and it’s gone)
2. sometimes proteins are toxic to
bacteria
3. sometimes polyp and form
inclusion bodies which may or may
not be OK
What was the 1st human protein made Insulin
commercially?
What is another common human protein 1. somatotropin = growth hormone
used? What does it do? 2. growth hormone that makes people
grow, but giving to cows help to
stimulate milk production

NOTE: the potential problem with

drinking this milk is that the hormone in
the milk may get inside of you and cause
an effect
What is the recombinant growth hormone? 1. somatotropin
Where could this be seen in the grocery 2. It will be noted on milk cartons
store? whether or not the milk was
produced with recombinant growth
hormone (or somatotropin)
What is the process of using somatotropin 1. have a vector (plasmid)
to help in production of more milk in 2. isolate mRNA from cow
cows? 3. use reverse transcriptase to make
DNA (called cDNA)
4. put DNA into plasmid
5. transform into [Link]
6. [Link] grows and makes
recombinant (rBST)
7. cows injected with rBST and make
more milk
What is the vector used with somatotropin plasmid
in cows?
What are erythrocytes? Red blood cells
The following products are made from 1. hormone produced by kidneys for
genetic engineering. What do they do? body to make more red blood cells
1. erythropoietin 2. wound healing
2. epidermal growth factor 3. relaxes uterus in child growth
3. relaxin 4. used for reproductive problems
4. follicle stimulating hormone 5. treatment of some growth
5. somatotropin (growth hormone) abnormalities

Why do we want to take animal / human 1. faster

genes and clone them into bacteria to be 2. cheaper

20
produced? 3. cleaner
What is interferon? What does it do? In 1. antiviral
which treatments might this be used? 2. body naturally makes interferons =
cells around them will not get
infected with the virus
3. cancer treatments
What is interleukin? Genetic engineering product used in
treatment of certain cancers.
What is lysozyme? Genetic engineering product used as anti-
inflammatory
Vaccines are really what? Antigens
What are the best antigens? Proteins
Your best vaccines will probably be what? Proteins
How does a vaccine work? 1. inject antigen (vaccine)
2. body makes antibodies (by B cells
which are lymphocytes)
What kinds of B cells do our bodies have? 1. memory cells = remember antigen =
What do they do? when exposed later = ready to make
antibody
2. plasma cells = make antibodies now
What kind of a cell is a B cell? lymphocyte
Antibodies bind to what? Is this specific? 1. antigens
What happens after this? 2. VERY specific
3. once bound = destroys the antigen
If you are exposed to smallpox after you 1. No.
have received the smallpox vaccine, will 2. yes
you contract the smallpox? What about 3. b/c mumps has different antigens
mumps (after smallpox vaccination)?
Why? NOTE: this is why someone who receives
flu vaccine could still get flu

What are the 3 basic types of vaccines? 1. vector vaccine

2. subunit vaccine
3. DNA vaccine
What is a polyvalent vaccine? Vaccine that treats multiple things (ie:
MMR, DPT)
How is the vector vaccine made? What 1. By inserting genes from a
would these genes probably code for? pathogenic virus
2. the protein of the capsid

WEBSITE ANIMATION:

21
 Vaccine Type

T or F: Vaccines may contain different TRUE

versions of the pathogen.
What are 2 types of vaccine that include the 1. attenuated = pathogen weakened
entire pathogen? but can still reproduce = MOST
EFFECTIVE in lifelong immunity
but can cause disease in immuno
compromised or even healthy
person
2. Inactivated = killed pathogen =
can’t produce and often requires
additional booster for full immunity
MMR is a type of what kind of vaccine? Polyvalent and attenuated
The flu vaccine is of what type? Inactivated
Tetanus is a type of what vaccine? Toxoid vaccine
Toxoid vaccines contain no what? What 1. Pathogen (only inactivated toxins
are the toxins within this vaccine treated from a bacterium)
with? 2. chemicals or heat to make them less
dangerous (but also makes them a
weaker antigen)
Hepatitis B vaccine is of what type? Subunit vaccine = contain only
nonpathogenic antigens of the pathogen
(not entire cell/virus) = can’t cause disease
Attenuated means what? Weakened (virus still alive but is not as
strong as pathogen itself is)
The best way to get lifelong immunity is 1. get an infection and recover
what? What is an example of this? yourself = active immunity
2. get chickenpox as child and never
get it again
What do you have to do with vaccines? Need booster shots (give long immunity
but best / longest immunity is when we get
an infection and recover ourselves)
Who can be an immunocompromised 1. person with suppressed immune
person? Why would someone be asked this system (ie: cancer patient)
when receiving a vaccine? 2. b/c even though it may be an
attenuated virus, you are still going
to get an infection with this virus
and can, therefore, spread it (a
normal person would not be
affected but an
immunocompromised person may
not be able to fight this off)
What is a toxoid? Weakened toxin
What are toxins? Poison

22
Where is an example of a toxoid vaccine? Tetanus
Where does the tetanus toxin come from? Bacteria on rust on nail
What bacteria produces this? Claustridium tetani = anaerobic gram + rod
with spores

NOTE: puncture wound does not bleed

much and bacteria goes from spore to
bacterial cell and makes toxin as it grows
(toxin gets in bloodstream that causes
continual contractions of muscles like
lockjaw)

What does the body make antibodies The toxin (antibodies bind to the toxin and
against for tetanus? the toxin does not cause damage)
Why do we need booster shots for tetanus To keep antibody level high
every 7-10 years?
A vaccine is a liquid containing a Pathogen
weakened or killed what?
What do B cells produce? Antibodies and memory cells

WEBSITE ANIMATION:

What does haemophilus type B cause? Meningitis

How are recombinant vaccines made? Get DNA in host and host will make
proteins
What do subunit vaccines contain? Only a specific protein or proteins (not
whole organism) = just has the antigen =
probably the most common vaccine
What is gene mining? Process where DNA or RNA is isolated
and from there they work backwards,
cloned into vector (like plasmid), put them
in bacteria and look for different things
A transgenic organism has what? Genes from another organism (ie:
fluorescent pig under blue light, growth
hormone in animals to increase size)
What is gene therapy not? What is it? 1. not cutting gene out
2. introducing the right gene to
override the non-functional gene
What are the main ways that transgenic 1. electroporation
plants are formed? 2. particle gun methods (gene gun)
3. use of agrobacterium = bacteria that
transfers genes = bacteria to plants
What is a disease caused by agrobacterium Crown Gall disease
Why are agrobacterium used? Put gene (protein) that you want to clone

23
 on Ti plasmid and then agrobacterium
infects plant and gives new gene to plant to
make plants resistance to a disease
What are some of the 1st plants to use Tobacco plants
agrobacterium?
What does bacillus make? Why is this a 1. spores
good thing? 2. easily stored (for thousands of
years) and then can be sprinkled
onto plants, grow and make toxin to
kill larvae of bugs
T or F: Improving product quality is TRUE (ie: spoilage delay)
another target area of genetic engineering
of plants.
T or F: Transgenic plants can be used to TRUE (ie: interferon, antibodies, vaccines)
produce human proteins for medical use.

Biology 261 (exam 03) : Class 25 - 03-17-10

24
What are the 4 ways to control microbial 1. Sterilazation
growth? 2. Inhibition
3. Decontamination
4. Disinfection
The killing or removal of all viable Sterilization
organisms within a growth media is what?
Can something be partially sterile? No
The two main ways to sterilize something 1. killing = heat = fire, autoclave, boil
is to _____ or _____ the microorganism. = denatures protein (enzymes)
2. removing = filtration
What are the 3 main ways that heat can be 1. boiling
used to sterilize something? 2. autoclave
3. fire (inoculating loop)
What does the heat do? Denatures proteins (enzymes)
How could you remove viable organisms Filtering
without killing them?
What size filter do you need to get bacteria 0.45 microns (standard biological filter)
out? 0.22 microns (mycoplasma)
What is a 0.45 microns filter used for? Standard biological filter for sterilization
What is a 0.22 microns filter used for? 1. Mycoplasma filter for sterilization
Why is this filter requirement smaller than 2. b/c they don’t have cell wall = able
the standard biological filter size? to change shape and slip through
filter

NOTE: bacteria have stiff cell walls and

cannot change its shape = stuck in larger
filter
What does pore size refer to? Size of the hole (space) in the filter
What size is [Link]? 1x3 microns, Gram – rod
What size is staph? 1 micron in diameter, Gram +
What size is bacillus? 1x5 microns, Gram + rod
Which of these is the hardest to kill? Why? 1. bacillus
2. endospores (have to kill vegetative
cell and kill spore, too)
When using heat to sterilize, what are the 2 Temperature and time
most important factors to control?
What are some things we sterilize? 1. surgical tools
2. hypodermic needles
3. inoculating loops
4. Petri dishes
5. growth media
st
What is sterilized 1 in lab? Media
Why is this important? Have to have sterile media to put an
organism in it
Stopping or slowing down growth of an Inhibition
organism is what?

25
The treatment of an object to make it safe Decontamination
to handle / use is what?
What directly targets the removal of all Disinfection
pathogens, not necessarily all microbes?
Disinfectants especially want to kill what? Pathogens
What are some examples of disinfectants? 1. Lysol or bleach
What do they do? 2. kill microorganisms
Name an antiseptic? What does it do? 1. Listerine
2. slows down or inhibits growth (=
inhibition) = we have to use it again
= we still have bacteria in mouth
What method is the most commonly used Heat sterilization method
method in controlling microorganisms?
What does it do? Denatures proteins (enzymes)
The amount of time it takes to get rid of Decimal reduction time
10% of the organisms is called the what?
What would a bacteria have that would Endospores
make it harder to kill with heat
(temperature change), disinfectants, and
dehydration?
What piece of equipment is primarily used Autoclave
for heat sterilization?
How much pressure is sent from the boiler 45#
to the autoclave?
An autoclave is typically set to get to what? 1. 15 lbs. of pressure
Why is this important? 2. increase in pressure = increase in
temp
Without pressure, what’s the highest 100 C
temperature you can get to?
What temperature can be achieved with 121 C
15# pressure?
Increases pressure decreases what? Time
What kills endospores of bacillus 1. autoclave: 15 min @ 15# = 121 C
stearothermophilus? What is this 2. thermophile with endospores
organism?
What do you expect after an autoclaved 1. no growth (if growth = autoclave
sporestrip is placed in media and put in an did not work)
incubator? When this is done as a test, 2. quality control autoclave
what is it called? Why is this important? 3. tells if autoclave process worked =
important for culture or surgical
tools, etc
What is the downtime of an autoclave? After 15 minutes, pressure drops 1# / min
to keep liquids from boiling over
What cycle would have lower downtime? Dry cycle (something with no liquid)
Why does milk spoil? b/c it’s not sterile
The goal of pasteurization is to reduce Pathogenic bacteria (like mycobacterium

26
what? found in milk)
Why don’t we boil milk? This will denature proteins in milk
What makes milk white? Protein = casein
Why don’t we filter milk? Takes out proteins and nutrients
What would we get if we filtered milk? Just water part
What is the temp / time difference b/w Lower temp for longer period of time
autoclaving and pasteurization?
What are the 2 most important parts of the 1. temperature
sterilization? 2. time
Pasteurization is a lower temp for a longer Reduce pathogens (but not all of them)
period of time to do what?
What else is pasteurized? Yogurt, beer, wine
Higher temp = what? Lower time
What are some things that cannot be Plastics (ie: Petri dishes, pipettes, syringes)
autoclaved?
How would these be sterilized? Ethylene oxide (gas) = looks similar to an
autoclave = gas pumped into chamber and
gas kills organisms (let gas evacuate before
opening)
What do hot air ovens do? 170 C for 3 hours
What is this used for? Glass empty containers (ie: tubes – put
metal lids on them in metal racks)
How should an empty tube be placed for Lay it down (not standing up)
sterilization?
Does wet heat work faster than dry heat? Yes. (I guess steam applied to this process
but could not hear on audio)
What is the 15 minute period in an Sterilization time
autoclave (running at 15# pressure and 121
C) called?
What forms of radiation can be used for 1. microwaves
sterilization? 2. UV
3. X-rays
4. gamma rays
What could this type of sterilization cause? Mutations
What does exposure to UV light cause? Thymine dimmer mutations
UV sterilization is important for what type Things on surfaces (can’t penetrate surface)
of treatment?
Where might UV sterilization be used? Surgery rooms and burn units
What does ionizing radiation do? Breaks DNA = kills cells
What is this used for? Decontamination of meats, fruits, spices
What are spices filled with? Bacillus
Clostridium botulinum causes what? Why? 1. Botulism
2. b/c of toxin (not infection)
What is the most lethal biological toxin? Toxin of clostridium botulinum
Clostridium tetani causes what? Tetanus = toxin also

27
Salmonella typhimurium causes what? 1. salmonella
Where might a child get this? 2. from little turtles (now outlawed)
What does [Link] O157-H7 cause? What 1. hemolytic uremic syndrome (Jack
does it do? Who is more succeptible? in the Box deal)
2. makes toxin that damages kidneys
3. very young and very old
What special about deinococcus Resistant to radiation
radiodurans?
What is apergillus niger? Black mold
What is saccharomyces cervisiae? Yeast used for wine, beer, etc
Do drugs have to be decontaminated? Yes
Pores have to be ___ than the organism? Smaller so that it does not pass through
What are 2 main categories of filters? 1. depth filters (HEPA)
2. Membrane filters
HEPA stands for what? High efficiency particulate air
HEPA filters are very useful for what? 1. Mold spores, allergins, and dust
What are they not useful for? 2. bacteria
Why would you not want to filter out b/c pore size needs to be so small = air
bacteria in HVAC ducts? flow decreases (but air needed to flow to
cool, etc.)
What are the 2 membrane methods for 1. membrane filter (uses pump to
filter to sterilize stuff? move stuff = like parastalysis) =
large amount
2. syringe direct into sterile container
= small amount
What are two diseases caused by 1. syphilis
spirochetes? 2. lyme’s disease
When talking about control, what does the 1. stop / inhibit = antiseptic = used in
following mean and how are they used: tissues
1. static? 2. kill = disinfectant = bleach = used
2. cidal? on surfaces
3. lytic? 3. lyse (blow up) = heat / lysozyme /
osmotic pressure (like distilled
water)
Example of bacterial static is a what? Antiseptic = reduce or inhibit bacterial
growth
Example of bacterial cydic is a what? bleach
Where are antiseptics used? In tissues (inside or on skin)
Where are disinfectants used? Surfaces (not tissue = like toilet, etc)
What is MIC? Minimum inhibitory concentration
The smallest amount of an agent needed to MIC
inhibit growth of a microbe is what?
What are the main 2 ways to figure this 1. do dilutions
out? 2. Kirby Bauer test

What is the minimum concentration MBC = minimum bacteriocydal

28
required to kill bacteria called? concentration
When would this be important? In development of drugs
The Kirby Bauer test is what kind of test? Antibiotic resistance test
How does it work? Take one organism (pure culture) and grow
within media containing multiple discs
containing antibiotics placed around.
Incubate the plate for 24-48 hours and look
for zones.

NOTE: no zone = organism resistant to

antibiotic
In Kirby Bauer test, bigger the zone means Bacteria more sensitive / susceptible to
what? antibiotic
What do the discs have? Different concentrations of antibiotics
What do hand sanitizers do? What is one 1. kill bacteria where applied
problem with this? 2. bacteria may develop resistance
over time

Biology 261 (exam 03) : Class 26 - 03-19-10

29
 WEBSITE ANIMATION:

Chemotherapeutic agents: Modes of

action

When we are developing an antibiotic, it targets the pathogen and not harm the
what is the main thing we are looking for host cells
(what makes it a good drug)?
What can a pathogen be? 1. bacteria
2. virus
3. fungus
4. parasite
How can a drug target a pathogen and not Look for difference in the organisms (ie:
harm the host? host = us normally = eukaryotic and
bacteria pathogen = prokaryotic)
What are some of the main differences b/w 1. Us = eukaryotic = 80s ribosomes =
us, bacteria, and fungi? nucleus = no cell wall
2. bacteria = prokaryotic = 70s
ribosomes = no nucleus = cell wall
w/ PG
3. fungi = eukaryotic = nucleus = cell
wall made of chitin
The “host” is normally what? us
What forms the cell walls of fungi? Chitin
What else do fungi have in their Sterols (sometimes drugs will target this)
cytoplasmic membrane?
What targets the cell wall of bacteria? Penicillin (blocks cross linking of PG cell
wall)
What is PABA? Substrate used in pathway to make folic
acid (folic acid synthesis)
PABA competes with what? Why does it 1. Sulfa drugs through competitive
not hurt us? inhibition (sulfa drug looks like
PABA and fits in which stops folic
acid production)
2. because we don’t make folic acid
(we take it in with our diets)
Why are anti-microbial chemicals used in To retard the growth of bacteria that would
industry? degrade these products
Phenols, heavy metals, and chlorine Disinfectants to help get rid of organisms
bleaches are what? that might cause a problem
An antiseptic does what? Inhibits or reduces growth
Why is pure phenol not used anymore? Carcinogen

Why do we use alcohol on cuts, etc? To disinfect = lipid solvent = denature

30
 proteins and thus helps clean out normal
flora around cuts
Why would phenol be used? Disrupt cell membrane = cell lyses
What do we use ethylene oxide for? Sterilize plastics
Ozone is used to do what mostly? To disinfect water
What are the different modes of action of 1. effect cell wall synthesis (ie:
drugs (and give some examples)? penicillin)
2. mess with DNA gyrase so that
DNA can’t supercoil and cell dies
(ie: quinolones)
3. mess with protein synthesis at the
ribosome (50s and 30s)
4. mess with lipid biosynthesis (cell
membrane)
5. competitive inhibition (ie: PABA)
What is the mode of action of a quinolone 1. Mess up DNA gyrase
drug? What might this be used to treat? 2. used to treat anthrax

PABA drugs do what? Competitive inhibition

What does a broad spectrum drug do? 1. broad = kills Gram + and Gram –
Narrow spectrum? (end up with yeast infections or
diarrhea) = wipes out everything
2. narrow = kills one or the other =
more focused
Drugs that end in –ide or –oles are usually Fungal infection (ie: thrush, athlete’s foot,
used to treat what? ringworm, nail fungus)
What do mycobacterium cause? What do 1. TB and leprosy
they have in their cell walls? 2. Mycoic acids (acid-fast)
What drug works the best for Gram + Penicillin b/c of the thick PG cell walls
bacteria?
What drug is most commonly used for Isoniazid (this would be narrow spectrum)
mycobacteria?
What drug is used just for Gram – bacteria? Polymyxins (this would be narrow
spectrum)
What drug will just treat Gram + and not Vancomycin (this would be narrow
Gram -? spectrum)
What’s special about Chlamydia and Obligately parasitic bacteria that HAVE
Rickettsia? TO live inside host (not free living
bacteria). This is why there are not a lot of
drugs to treat these b/c they live inside the
host’s cell.

NOTE: this would apply to viruses, too

What is one of the most common sexually Chlamydia
tranmitted diseases?
What is a nucleoside analog? Look like something else (ie: adenine or

31
 uracil, etc) ; used to treat viruses
What antibiotic gets produced the most? 1. cephalosporins
2nd most? 2. penicillins
What did Paul Ehrlich do? “magic bullet” = wanted to find drug that
would kill pathogen and not hurt host =
developed salvarsan (derivative of arsenic)
to treat syphilis

NOTE: this is what we call selective

toxicity now

The ability to inhabit or kill a pathogen Selective toxicity

without affecting the host is what?
What is one of the 1st effective Salvarsan developed by Paul Ehrlich to
antimicrobial drugs? treat syphilis
What’s unique about an analog? It looks like the substrate that the enzymes
are looking for but it’s not and will,
therefore mess up the growth or whatever
it’s for (ie: growth factor analog)
Isoniazid is associated with what? What 1. mycobacterium
does it do? 2. interferes with synthesis of mycoic
acids
What kind of stain is used for Acid-fast
mycobacteria?
AZT is what type of drug? Nucleic acid base analog
“Cipro..” is a type of which drug group? 1. quinolones
What do they interfere with? 2. DNA gyrase which is responsible
for supercoiling
Naturally produced antimicrobial agents =? Antibiotics
Something produced naturally by one Antibiotic
organism against another is a what?
What are antibiotics called when they are 1. semisynthetic
partly made in the lab? Completely made 2. synthethic
in lab?
What is the main structure in penicillin? 1. B lactam rings
Who discovered this? 2. Alexander Fleming
Natural penicillin is what? Made by what? 1. penicillin G
2. penicillium
What is the semisynthetic penicillin that is Ampicillin
pink in color?
Penicillin is very effective against what? Gram + bacteria b/c of thick PG cell wall
What might someone be given if they are Cephalosporin (produced by fungus
allergic to penicillin? cephalosporium) = same mode of action as
the penicillins

What are the general reasons why 1. target 50s ribosomes

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antibiotics kill? 2. target 30s ribosome interfering with
protein synthesis
3. interfere with DNA gyrase
4. etc.
AZT is a what? What does it do and how? 1. Nucleoside analog
2. looks like adenine (will get in there
and mess up replication)
When cells are infected by a virus, they 1. interferons
produce what? What do these do? 2. help host’s cells around infected
cell not to get infected
Fungal infections are hard to treat and take 1. Fungi are eukaryotic (and so are
a lot longer to treat b/c of what? What are we) which means that it is more
some ways to get around this? difficult to get a drug to target fungi
only (something special to them)
and not our cells
2. Ergosterol inhibitors or drug to
target chitin synthesis
What is ergosterol? Found in cell membrane of fungi that make
them stronger (a drug that targets this in
fungi will make cell wall weak and leak
and die)
The name of a drug that targets fungi will -ole
typically end in what?
How might a drug target fungi? 1. cell wall synthesis (chitin synthesis)
2. ergosterol synthesis
3. target something happening in
nucleus
4. target membrane functions
Bacteria, viruses, and fungi can build a 1. A resistance to a drug =
what? How could this happen? antimicrobial drug resistance
2. acquired the gene from another
organism or mutation

(ie: when someone does not take ALL

antibiotics = not enough drug to kill
ALL organisms = will leave some =
only takes one organism/cell to mutate
or pick up gene to become resistant to
become superbug)

What was it that made bacteria resistant to They made penicillinase that breaks B
penicillin? lactam rings in penicillin structure

What might be some ways that an organism 1. it lacks structure the antibiotic

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would naturally be resistant to certain inhibits
antibiotics? 2. it is impermeable to antibiotic
3. it can inactivate the antibiotic
4. it can modify the target of the AB
5. it may develop a resistant
biochemical pathway
6. it may be able to pump out the AB
What do resistance plasmids (R plasmids) enzyme or toxin that makes organism
carry genes for? resistant
More antibiotic use = what? Higher chance of resistance
What is MRSA? Methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus
Does resistant increase or decrease over Increases = need for better drugs all the
time? time
What organism causes yeast infections? Candida albicans
How does staph aureus spread? Contact
Which organism become resistant to Staph aureus (1950’s and it’s still resistant
antibiotics first? today)
Mycobacteria is what? Acid-fast
Candida albicans is what? Yeast (causes yeast infections)
Are more gram + or gram – organisms Gram -
resistant?
What causes diarrhea? Shigella or salmonella
Neisseria and Haemophilus are what? Sexually transmitted
What is the special thing about Very specific to virus so that it kills
bacteriophage therapy? organism (but when gram – organism’s
lyse they release of the endotoxin which
can be just as bad)

Biology 261 (exam 03) : Class 27 - 03-22-10

34
T or F: Most microbes are associated with FALSE: most microbes are NOT
disease. associated with disease = normal microbial
flora
The bacteria that do not cause disease are? Normal microbial flora
What is the normal flora of: 1. staphylococcus epidermidis = gram
1. skin + cocci; lives on skin b/c of salt
2. mouth concentration
3. stomach 2. streptococcus = gram + cocci
4. colon 3. none b/c pH = 2 = sterile body site
5. bladder (SBS)
6. brain 4. [Link] = gram – rod; lactose
7. heart fermentor
8. uterus 5. None = SBS; bacteria here =
9. CSF bladder infection; grow once here
b/c no competition, right pH,
nutrients here, N2, etc (urine good
growth environment)
6. None = SBS
7. None = SBS
8. None = SBS; born sterile and get
bacteria once born through eating,
touching, etc
9. None = SBS; meningitis may cause
infection
When are humans colonized by microbes? At birth
What is corynebacterium? Cause? Found Gram + rods that do not have spores, cause
where? Is this a pathogen or resident flora? diphtheria; found in mouth; resident flora
What is Neisseria? Cause? Found where? Gram- diplococcic; cause meningitis and
Is this a pathogen or resident flora? gonorrhea; found in upper respiratory tract;
resident flora
What is the resident yeast? Cause? Found Candida; causes thrush(mouth) or yeast
where? infection(genital area)
Why is it important to have resident flora? Imp. b/c they are physical barrier over our
entire body that prevents infection with
pathogen
Infection means what? Overgrowth or growth
Pathogens do what? Cause disease
Name pathogen(s) that are streptococci? Streptococcus pyogenes = strep throat
Streptococcus pneumonia = pneumonia
What causes walking pneumonia? Mycoplasma
Why does strep pneumoniae cause disease? It has a capsule = not phagocytosized
What performs phagocytosis in our bodies? Macrophages and neutrophils
The quantitative measure of pathogenicity Virulence
is what?
What is an example of an opportunistic Candida albucans; causes disease only in

35
pathogen? absence of normal host resistance (broad
spectrum antibiotics, etc)
Infections always implies what? Organism is growing
Disease always involves what? Damage (to host)
Health is a balance b/w what? Organism and our immune system
Most infections occur where? In mucous membranes or through break in
skin
Is the skin generally slightly acidic or Slightly acidic and dry
alkaline? Wet or dry?
Why do we not want skin w/ neutral pH? b/c would promote bacterial growth
Staph is gram+ what? Cocci in clusters
The outer layer of skin is called what? Epidermis
The amount of organisms varies due to Humidity, age (real young and real old
what factors? more succeptible), personal hygiene
What contains antimicrobial enzymes in 1. Saliva
our mouth? Like what? Why? 2. Lysozyme / peroxidase
3. Tooth is hard surface made of
enamel = good attachment surface
What happens if an organism attaches to Skin inside mouth sheds and organism is
the inside of your mouth? swallowed
Where does an organism prefer to attach On teeth (enamel of teeth)
inside our mouths?
How could an organism cause tooth decay? Attach to enamel, decay enamel (break
down sucrose into lactic acid and other
acids and promote decay), etc.
What is the very 1st step an organism has to Attach (after coming into contact with
do to promote tooth decay? organism)
What is the thick bacterial layer found in 1. Plaque
the mouth? What causes this especially? 2. Streptococci
Decalcification of the tooth enamel is Dental caries
what?
What normally causes cavities? How? 1. Streptococcus mutans
2. Breaks down sucrose into glucose +
fructose and makes glycan which
makes them sticky (stick to teeth)
3. They grow and form plaque (this
creates anaerobic environment
within the plaque)
4. Creates galactic acid leading to
tooth decay (decalcification of tooth
enamel)
5. as it grows, decay gets into pulp,
then nerve, then need root canal
Bacteria growth in the gums of the mouth Gingivitis
is called what?
What happens if bacterial growth gets Decalcifies the bone (just like enamel)

36
down into the bone (bad case of which leads to bone loss and tooth falling
gingivitis)? out
What 2 organisms would you see in oral Streptococci and lactobacillus
plaque if you did a gram stain?
Why would a dog have less tooth decay Less sweets in diet and shape of teeth /
than humans? space b/w teeth (more decay in back)
What’s the main thing happening in the Digestion
small and large intestine?
What do we have here to help facilitate Enzymes to break down food, then absorb
this? this into blood, what’s left feed organisms
into large intestines and colon
What’s the normal amount of bacterial cells 10 to the 13th or 10 to the 14th
in this area?
Where are the majority of organisms in the Colon
GI tract?
What lives in the ileum? Macrophages, etc that help to keep colon
bacteria out of the intestine
What are the bacteria that live in the colon 1. absorption of bile salts and acids
important for? 2. keep pH around 7
3. production of vitamin B12
The organisms that live in our GI tract are The diet that we eat
influenced by what?
What prevents bacterial flora from Acidity of the stomach
colonizing in the stomach and the
duodenum?
What do normal bacterial flora in our GI Vitamins B12 and K and gas
tract produce?
What would a person experience if they are Lots of gas ([Link] breaks down food in
lactose intolerant? large intestine which creates gas)
What colonizes the upper respiratory tract Staph, strep (primarily strep), diptheroid
primarily? bacilli (gram +), and neisseria
What is the gram – negative cocci found in Neisseria
the upper respiratory tract / mouth?
What are the normal flora of the lower None
respiratory tract?
Why would we have normal flora of the Open to outside
upper respiratory tract?
What is an organism likely to be if it gets A pathogen
into the lower respiratory tract?
What causes tubercolosis? These 1. Mycobacteria
organisms are considered what? 2. acid-fast
What kind of an infection could an Systemic (= all over b/c plentiful blood
organism colonizing the lower respiratory supply used to exchange gases and
tract cause? nutrients found here)

What is the urogenital tract? Is it a sterile 1. bladder

37
site? 2. yes, in both males and females
Are males or females more likely to get a 1. females
bladder infection? Why? 2. distance from opening of urethra to
bladder is shorter in females
How could a bacteria get from the opening 1. catheter
of the urethra to the bladder? 2. flagella
What is the relative ability of a pathogen to Virulence
cause disease?
What organism keeps the pH acidic in the Lactobacillus (i)
urogenital tract (and vaginal tract)?
Where could we find exposure to a From someone who is sick?
pathogen?
What is usually involved in pathogenic Receptors (this is why we don’t get flu on
adherence? our hands and also why we don’t get
gonorrhea on our ears, etc)
Bacterial adherence can be facilitated by Slime layers and capsules
what?
What are fimbriae important for? Attachment
An organism with a capsule would appear Shiny (or slimy) b/c capsule =
what? polysaccharide = smooth
A capsule is usually made of what? Polysaccharide
What does a pathogen do once it has Invades (grow or not based upon growth
attached to its host? conditions)
What do we use to measure virulence? 1. LD50
What does it mean? 2. the dose of an agent that kills 50%
of the animals in a test group
A very virulent organism would have a Small
very large or small LD50?
Why might an organism have a smaller Capsule
LD50?
What does attenuation mean? Weaker (not dead – killed means dead)
Tetanus and botulism are caused by what? 1. clostridium = anaerobic gram + rod that
lives in dirt and makes spores
An organism is virulent if it makes what? Toxin
What is the most virulent / deadly toxin Botulism (botox)
made?
To colonize and grow to high densities is invasiveness
what?
If an organism is able to invade it can Toxin
produce damage without producing a what?
How could we get botulism (besides Eat it
botox)?
A toxin is actually a what? Protein (so if we heat our food up before
eating it this would kill toxin)

Biology 261 (exam 03) : Class 28 - 03-24-10

38
Isoniazid is a drug associated with what? Mycobacteria
What is impor
Drugs that focus on specific thing is what? Narrow spectrum
A drug that kills gram + and – is what? Broad spectrum
A drug that messes up the cell wall in Penicillin (works w/ gram + and – ; works
bacteria is what? better w/ gram + b/c thicker cell wall)
Bactericidal means to do what? Kill
Bateriolytic means to do what? Lyse (cell also dies)
What are exotoxins? Toxins that are released by the cell (usually
bacteria) into its environment /
surroundings (blood, host, food, etc)
Exotoxins tend to be what? Proteins
Endotoxins are found where? In LPS of gram – cell = LIPID A (found in
outer membrane of gram – bacteria)
What has to happen for an endotoxin to be Cell has to die / lyse
released?
Exotoxins will not be released if the cell Dies (cell must be growing for exotoxin to
what? be released) Note the difference here b/w
endotoxin and exotoxin
What do we know about bacillus? Gram + rod, makes spores
Bacillus anthracis causes what? Anthrax (this bacteria makes 3 toxins)
Bacillus cereus causes what? Food poisoning (won’t kill like anthrax but
still a gram + rod that makes spores)

NOTE: this is associated with rice a lot b/c

rice not cleaned properly before cooked
(cells die when cooked but spores do not)
then rice left out and spores germinate, etc
and leads to diarrhea)

Bordetella pertussis causes what? Whooping cough

What’s special about botulism? Most toxic biological toxin known (neuro
toxin that causes paralysis just like
clostridium tetani)

NOTE: remember that toxins are proteins

produced by the organism that reacts on the
host

What’s special about clostridium? Anaerobic, gram + rod, that make

endospores
Clostridium perfringens causes what? Food poisoning and gangrene (not as bad
as botulism but still food poisoning)
Entero means what? Intestines (GI tract)
Corynebacterium diphtheriae causes what? Diphtheria (toxin acts in throat and causes

39
 a pseudomembrane which is an adherent
membrane of the tonsils, pharynx, and/or
nasal cavity)

[Link]

What’s the difference b/w dysentery and Dysentery = blood in stool

regular diarrhea? Diarrhea = no blood in stool
Streptococcus pyogenes causes what? Strep throat
What is the secondary infection of strep Scarlet fever (associated with a lot of the
throat? toxins produced by S. pyogenes)
Vibrio cholerae causes what? Diarrhea

NOTE: this is not an infection and does

not cause death. The toxin this organism
produces acts on the intestinal cells and
causes dehydration. Ultimately, one may
die from the dehydration but not from the
toxin itself.

Virulence factors are important for what? For the bacteria to be able to cause disease
What is hyaluronidase? What does it do? 1. a virulence factor
What does hyaluronic acid do? 2. breaks down hyaluronic acid
3. holds cells together to form tissues
What does hyaluronidase allow a bacteria Spread
to do?
What does coagulase do? Causes plasma to clot or coagulate
What organism produces coagulase? Staphylococcus aureus

NOTE: Staphylococcus epidermidis does

not produce coagulase

What are 2 methods we’ve learned for MSA and coagulase test
differentiating b/w S. aureus and S.
epidermidis? NOTE: S. aureus = coagulase +
S. epidermidis = coagulase –

How does S. aureus use coagulase? S. aureus causes boils or pimples, releases
coagulase, and makes a barrier b/w the
bacteria and the blood clot (puss builds up
inside = 1 of virulence factors for staph)
What are the 3 categories of exotoxins? 1. cytolytic toxins
2. AB toxins
3. Superantigen toxins

What do cytolytic toxins do? What is an 1. lyse cells

40
example of this? 2. hemolysins (alpha, beta, gamma)
What do hemolysins do? What kind of 1. Lyse red blood cells
media is used to test this? 2. blood agar
Complete / total hemolysis is what? How 1. Beta lysis
does this appear in media? 2. clear zone
Partial hemolysis is what? How does this 1. Alpha lysis
appear in media? 2. green
No hemolysis is what? How does this 1. gammal lysis
appear in media? 2. color of media itself = red up to the
colony = no zone
Describe streptococcus pyogenese. Gram + cocci in chains (remember strepto
= klepto = chains)
What is an example of a Beta hemolytic Streptococcus pyogenes = total lysis =
pathogenic bacteria? clear zone
What is an example of a Alpha hemolytic Streptococcus pneumoniae = partial lysis =
pathogenic bacteria? green
What does streptococcus pneumoniae have Capsule which helps it to avoid
that allows it to cause an infection? phagocytosis and let it infect area in lower
respiratory tract which has plentiful blood
supply
Which organisms produce spores? Clostridium and bacillus (recently
discovered that some mycobacteria also
produces this)
What’s special about mycobacteria? They are acid-fast (have mycoic acids in
cell walls)
The exotoxins with 2 subunits are called 1. AB toxins
what? What are some examples of this? 2. diphtheria, botulism, and tetanus
toxins

WEBSITE TUTORIAL (ch. 28):

Diphtheria and Cholera toxin

Diphtheria toxin acts on the cells in the 1. cells in throat

what? What would one die from if infected 2. asphyxiation
by this?
Vibrio cholerae’s toxin reacts where? 1. in lumen of small intestine
What does it do? If exposed to cholera and 2. blocks the absorption of NA+ into
left untreated, one would die from what? cell causes water to flow into the
lumen leading to diarrhea
3. dehydration
Diphtheria toxin is produced by what? 1. Corynebactium diphtheriae
What type of exotoxin is this? 2. AB toxin
Cholera toxin is produced by what? What 1. Vibrio cholerae
type of toxin is this? 2. AB toxin
WEBSITE ANIMATION:

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 Virulence factors: Exotoxins

Most exotoxins fall into which AB toxins

classification?
Superantigens cause an increase in what? 1. T-cells
This could lead to what? 2. fever, inflammation, and shock
What organism’s toxin is an example of a Staphylococcus aureus
superantigen?
Diphtheria acts on the cells in the what? 1. throat
This creates what? What would one then 2. pseudomembrane
die from? What is the reason that the cells 3. asphyxiation b/c membrane closes
in the throat die? off throat
4. b/c of the toxin
The botulism toxin blocks the release of 1. ACH (blocks neurons from
what? What does this prevent? What does releasing ACH into synaptic cleft)
this lead to? What is a big sign to look for 2. muscle contraction
to see if someone is infected with this 3. flaccid paralysis
toxin? Why? What would this prevent if it 4. dilation of eyes (called “blary
occurred in the diaphragm? What would eyes”)
high levels of CO2 lead to? 5. b/c muscles cause eyes to dilate
6. gas exchange
7. acidosis leading to shock and death
Tetanus is a toxin produced by what? Clostridium tetani
Botulism is caused by a toxin released by Clostridium botulinum
what?
With tetanus, the cells continually release 1. ACH
what? What does this lead to? 2. continuous muscle contraction
leading to tetany
An antigen does what? What are the 2 1. Illicit immune responses
types of these? 2. Humoral (antibodies) and cellular
(T cells)
What is normally involved with T cells
superantigens?
What is the superantigen discussed in 1. S. aureus
class? What does it cause? 2. It causes:
- toxic shock syndrome
- scalded skin syndrome
- boils, pimples, etc
Where does inflammation / reaction occur All over body b/c toxin gets into blood
when infected with a superantigen?
Entero refers to what? Intestines (usually small intestine)
The result of an enterotoxin is always diarrhea or vomiting
what?
Are endotoxins or extoxins more deadly? Exotoxins
Where are endotoxins found ONLY? In gram – bacteria b/c they have LPS (toxin

42
 = LIPID A in LPS)
Which type of toxin would cause overall / Endotoxin
general fever, diarrhea, and vomiting?
Which type of toxin is often highly toxic Exotoxin
and sometimes fatal?
Which type of toxin does not normally Exotoxin
cause fever?
Exotoxins are sensitive to what? Why? 1. heat
2. b/c they are proteins (endotoxins
are not)
How would one test for an endotoxin? Limulus amebocyte lysate assay (LAL)

NOTE: this is an ameba that they use by

taking some of the fluid (ie: IV, etc) and
mixing it with LAL. If it dies = has
endotoxin
When one’s immune system is not working 1. compromised
properly, they are termed a _____ host. 2. caused by:
What factors might cause this? - AGE = very young and very old
- Stress
- Diet
- Certain genetic conditions
Mucus is important for what? Trapping foreign objects that get into our
system when we breathe in, etc.
Cilia do what? Move the foreign objects noted above out
What is found in our tears? What does this 1. lysozyme
do? 2. lyse bacterial cells if they get into
this are (not well vascularized)
What is a natural physical barrier to The skin. There needs to be a break in the
infection? skin to get an infection.

NOTE: skin produces fatty acids that are

anti-microbial in nature

Phagocytes do what? Eat the bacteria

The stomach’s change in what inhibits pH (taking lots of antacids may allow the
microbial growth. growth of bacteria in the stomach)
What is the normal flora of the intestines? 1. Gram – rods
What does this provide 2. physical barrier to pathogens (this
happens on the skin also)
What is the term that indicates that we get Tissue specificity = specific receptor
cavities in our mouths and not on our feet? required

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