EPM 171

Electrical and electronic

measurements

1st year electrical

Lecture 2
Generalized Measurement System, Instrument DR/ Shimaa Barakat
Types, and Calibration
 Generalized Measurement System
• A Generalized Measurement System is a fundamental framework used in
diverse fields such as manufacturing and healthcare, where accurate
measurements are important for process optimization and quality control.
• It is used to measure, process, and present data.

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 1. Primary Sensing Element
– Detects and extracts energy from the physical quantity
being measured.
Key – Converts the measured variable into an interpretable
signal.
Components – Example: A thermocouple that converts temperature into
an electrical signal.
2. Variable Conversion Element
– Converts the signal into a different form for further
processing.
– Example: A piezoelectric transducer that transforms
mechanical force into an electrical signal.
3. Manipulation Element
– Modifies the signal, often by amplification, filtering, or
scaling.
– Example: An amplifier that increases signal strength to
improve clarity.

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 4. Data Transmission Element
o Transfers the signal from the sensing location to the
processing unit.
Key o Example: Wireless communication modules used in
Components remote sensing systems.

5. Data Presentation Element

o Displays or records the processed signal for analysis and
decision-making.

o Example: Digital displays or computer interfaces used to

present measurement data.

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 Measurement System Stages
• The stages of a measurement system are crucial for ensuring accurate data collection,
processing, and presentation, which supports reliable analysis and decision-making.
1. Signal Sensing & Acquisition
– Captures input signals from physical phenomena.
– Examples: Thermocouples for temperature or photoelectric sensors for light detection.
2. Signal Conditioning & Manipulation
– Prepares signals for accurate interpretation, minimizing measurement errors by enhancing signal clarity
and reducing noise through filtering, amplification, or modulation.
– Examples: Electronic filters or optical lenses.
3. Data Presentation & Recording
– Displays or stores processed signals for analysis and further use.
– Examples: Digital readouts, printed charts, or computer logs.

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 Instruments Types
1. Mechanical, Electrical, and Electronic Instruments

• Mechanical Instruments: Used for measuring physical quantities. Suitable for

measuring static and stable conditions. Examples: Ruler, scale, hydraulic press, etc.

• Electrical Instruments: Used for measuring electrical quantities like current,

voltage, power, etc. Examples include ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters.

• Electronic Instruments: Have a quick response time and provide quicker

responses compared to electrical and mechanical instruments.

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 2. Active and passive instruments

• Active instrument: the measured quantity modulates the

magnitude of some external power source (i.e., it requires an
external power supply).
• Passive instrument: its output is produced entirely by the
measured quantity (i.e., it does not require an external power
supply, and the energy is supplied completely by its input signal).

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 Example of A Passive
instrument
Passive pressure gauge
• Energy expended in moving the pointer
is derived entirely from the change in
measured pressure
• No other energy inputs to the system
• The pressure of the fluid is translated
into the movement of a pointer against
a scale.

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 Example of an Active
instrument

Float-type petrol tank level indicator

• The change in petrol level moves a
potentiometer arm, and the output
signal consists of a proportion of the
external voltage source.
• The energy in the output signal comes
from the external power source.

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 Difference Between Active & Passive Instruments

• One very important difference between active and passive instruments is the level
of measurement resolution that can be obtained.
• In passive instruments It is possible to increase measurement resolution by making
the pointer longer, the scope for such improvement is clearly restricted by the
practical limit.
• In an active instrument, however, adjustment of the magnitude of the external
energy input allows much greater control over measurement resolution.
• Choice between active and passive instruments for a particular application involves
carefully balancing the measurement resolution requirements against cost.

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 Active Vs. Passive Instruments

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 3. Null / Deflection type instruments
Null-type Instrument
• Measurement is made by applying an
effect that opposes the measured
quantity until reaching a null point (zero
deflection).
• It is more accurate and is used for
calibration purposes.
• A null-type instrument requires:
1. The effect produced by measured quantity.
2. The opposite effect, the value of which is known.
3. The null detector.

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Deflection-type Instrument
• The value of the measured quantity
is displayed in terms of the change
of the measured variable.

• Examples of deflection-type
instruments include spring
balances, load cells, and strain
gauges.

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4. Analogue
and digital • Analogue Instruments
instruments
– Definition: Analogue instruments give an output that
varies continuously as the measured quantity changes (the
output can have infinite values).
– Output: Shows the output by the deflection of a pointer on
a scale.
– Examples: Analogue multimeter, analog ammeter, and
voltmeter, the analog speedometer of a vehicle.

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4. Analogue • Digital Instruments
and digital – Definition: Digital instruments have an output that varies
instruments in discrete steps and can only have a finite number of
values. (the output can only have a finite number of values).
– Output: Shows the output on a digital display screen as
text or numbers.
– Examples: Digital multimeter, digital ammeter and
voltmeter, digital energy meter.

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 5. Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output

Indicating Instruments
• Definition: Devices that provide a visual or audio indication of the magnitude of the measured physical quantity.
• Output: Direct reading of the measured value.
• Examples: Voltmeters, ammeters, liquid-in-glass thermometers (Analogue), and Bathroom scales (analog and digital).
Signal-type instruments
• Definition: Devices that provide an output as a signal proportional to the measured quantity.
• Output: Signal that can be further processed or transmitted.
• Examples: Sensors and transducers that output electrical signals.
Indicating instruments provide direct readings, making them convenient for immediate use. Instruments with a signal
output provide a signal representing the measurement, which is useful for further processing, control systems, or remote
monitoring.

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 6. Smart and non-smart instruments
• The presence of a microprocessor is a key factor that differentiates smart from non-smart
instruments.
Non-Smart Instruments
• Definition: Devices that record and retain various parameters but cannot communicate within a
network.
• Functionality: Provide immediate, direct reading of the measured value.
• Examples: Conventional meters, transmitters.
Smart Instruments
• Definition: Devices that record and retain parameters can participate in a network.
• Microprocessor: Contains a microprocessor that enables advanced functionalities.
• Functionality: Capable of bi-directional communication for data transmission and advanced
programming.
• Examples: Smart meters, smart transmitters.

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 Calibration
• Calibration is a systematic process used to determine the accuracy and reliability of a
measuring instrument by comparing its readings with those of a standard, known
reference instrument. This ensures consistent, trustworthy measurements for
practical applications.
Key Terms:
• Test Instrument: The device is calibrated with an unknown or uncertain
measurement.
• Standard Instrument: A device with a known, precise measurement used as a
reference.

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 Calibration Methodology

• Calibration techniques are broadly categorized into two methodologies,

each serving distinct purposes in various contexts to address different
measurement challenges:

1. Direct Comparison Calibration

2. Indirect Comparison Calibration

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 1. Direct Comparison Calibration
• This method involves applying a known input to the test instrument and directly
comparing its output with that of the standard instrument.
• The difference between the two values represents the measurement error.
• This methodology is important when measurements must be taken quickly and
under stable conditions.
Applications:
• Common in instruments like ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters.
• Ideal for stable, steady-state measurements.

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 1. Direct Comparison Calibration
Examples:
• Meter Calibration:
• A known input is applied; the test meter's
reading is compared with the standard
meter.
• Generator Calibration:
• A test generator is calibrated by comparing
its output with a standard generator.
• Transducer Calibration:
• The transducer's input-output relationship is
compared with a standard transducer.

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 2. Indirect Comparison Calibration
• In this method, the test instrument's readings are indirectly evaluated by
comparing them with those of a standard instrument that has undergone
calibration.
• This method is particularly advantageous when direct calibration is
impractical, such as in complex systems or inaccessible measurement points.
Both devices are subjected to the same input conditions, ensuring
consistency in the comparison process.

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 Examples:
• Meter Calibration:
• Simultaneously, the same input is applied to
the test and standard meters, and their
outputs are compared.
• Generator Calibration:
• A transfer meter is used to measure and
compare outputs from both the test and
standard generators.
• Transducer Calibration:
• Transducers are tested by applying a
common input and comparing their
respective outputs.

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