Summary

Chapter 3

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RULES:
-main titles : Title
-concepts: •
- subtitles: "diversity"

Biodiversity
The variety of living organisms. Biodiversity brings together the different species
and forms of life (animal, plant, entomological and other) and their variability, that is
to say, their dynamics of evolution in their ecosystems.

Rainforests have high diversity.

They are rich in resources (e.g.
food, space) with many different
niches available, so many
species can co-exist.

Species Diversity
Species diversity refers to the variety of species per unit area; it includes both the
number of species present and their relative abundance.
Higher species diversity= higher complexity

Richness and evenness

-​ components of biodiversity
Richness: is a term that refers to the number of a species in an area. High richness
has different amount of variety in each specie

Evenness: refers to the relative abundance of each species. High evenness has the
same variety in all species
•Communities can be described and compared by the use of diversity indices, for
example using the Simpson’s index. Number of species is often used to assess
biodiversity in an area.
-​ It can be compared to pollution, biodiversity,eutrophication,and recent
colonization.

•Habitat diversity
Is often associated with the variety of ecological niches. For example,
a woodland may contain many different habitats (e.g. river, soil, trees) and so have a
high habitat diversity, whereas a desert has few (e.g. sand, occasional vegetation)
and so has a low habitat diversity.

•Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the range of genetic material present in a population of a
species.

•Gene pool: all the different types of gene found within every individual of a species.
A large gene pool leads to high genetic diversity and a small gene pool to low
genetic diversity.
Overview of biodiversity
-Conservation of habitat diversity usually leads to the conservation of species and
genetic diversity.
-Quantification of biodiversity is important to conservation efforts

Conservation of biodiversity
Aims to protect habitats and ecosystems, and hence species from human-made
disturbances, such as deforestation and pollution. Conservation activities aim to slow
the rate of extinction caused by the
knock-on effects of unsustainable exploitation of natural resources and to maintain
biotic interactions between species.

•Quantification of biodiversity in this way is important to conservation efforts so that

areas of high biodiversity are identified, explored, and appropriate conservation put
in place where possible.
-Areas that are high in biodiversity are known as hotspots. They contain large
numbers of endemic species.
ex. Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena,

•Value of D
Individual values of D give an indication of the composition of the community being
investigated (i.e. low values of D indicate low evenness, meaning one species may
dominate the community) but do not, on their own, help in identifying areas of
biodiversity that should be conserved.

How biodiversity arises from evolutionary

processes
Evolution: the development of new species over very long periods of geological time
(millions of years).
-Evidence is found by examination of the fossil record.
Theory of Darwin:
-all species tend to over-reproduce
-this leads to competition for limited resources (a ‘struggle for existence’)
-species show variation (all individuals are not alike, they have subtle differences in
appearance or behavior).

BENEFITS AND NON- BENEFICIAL ASPECTS OF VARIATION:

Beneficial change of variation:

To the gene pool of a species can lead to increased chances of survival and the
ability
to pass on the same genetic advantage to the next generation.

Non-beneficial effects of variation:

such as the development of a genetic disease (e.g. cystic fibrosis – a disease that
affects the lungs and digestive system), the affected genes can still be passed down
through the generations but offer no adaptive advantage.

•Natural selection: common practice in which humans choose animals or

plants to breed together based on desirable characteristics. It is selective
breeding that has led to all the varieties of domestic and agricultural animals
we have today.

•The role of isolation in forming new species

Populations must first become separated (i.e. isolated), one from the other,
so that genes cannot be exchanged between them (this is reproductive isolation). If
the environments of the isolated populations are different, natural selection will work
on each population so that, through evolution, new species are formed (i.e.
speciation occurs).

•Speciation: is the formation of new species when populations of a species

become isolated and evolve differently.

•Geographic isolation:
Occurs when two populations are separated by geographic barriers such as rivers,
mountains, or bodies of water. Essential in the formation of new species. Without it,
interbreeding would cause the genes from two populations to continue to mix and
characteristics of the ancestral species to remain.
Plate tectonics
The outer layer of the Earth, the crust (lithosphere), is divided into eight major and
many minor plates . These plates vary in size and shape but can move relative to
each other. They are carried on the mantle (asthenosphere) beneath them,which can
flow like a liquid on geological time scales. The edges of adjacent plates can move
parallel to each other, be pushed one under the other, or collide.
Earthquakes,volcanoes, and mountain building occur at these boundaries. The
movement and forming and reforming of these plates is known as plate tectonics.

•Movement of the tectonic plates produce barriers like mountain ranges,oceans, and
rift valleys that lead to isolation of gene pools and then speciation, also lead to
isolation and the development or preservation of unique species.
ex. the separation of Australia led to the preservation of its distinctive flora and fauna
(e.g. eucalyptus, monotremes, and marsupials such as kangaroos).

•The movement of plates through different climatic zones allows new habitats to
present themselves

•Mass extinctions
Have been caused by factors such as tectonic movements, super-volcanic eruptions,
climatic changes (including drought and ice ages), and meteor impact. All resulted in
new directions in evolution and, therefore, an
eventual increased in biodiversity.

The five mass extinctions in the geological past, and their possible
causes, are as follows:
-The Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction=caused by the impact of

a several-mile-wide asteroid that created a huge crater now hidden beneath the Gulf
of Mexico

-The End Triassic extinction= caused by massive floods of lava erupting from an
opening in the Atlantic Ocean, leading to climate change.
-The Permian–Triassic extinction= suspected to have been caused by a comet or
asteroid impact, although direct evidence has not been found.

-The late devonian extinction= Occurred about 364 million years ago, caused by
global cooling (followed by global
warming), linked to the diversification of land plants (causing less CO2 in
atmosphere
and therefore lower levels of greenhouse gases).

-The Ordovician–Silurian extinction

Occurred about 439 million years ago, was caused by a drop in sea levels as
glaciers
formed, then by rising sea levels as glaciers melted.

●​ How many species are there on Earth?

Estimates of global species numbers are based on mathematical models that
extrapolate from known information. Lack of exploration of the deep sea and
rainforest canopies, for example, means that knowledge of the total number of
species on Earth is poorly understood, although estimates give an indication of the
possible scale. Estimates range from 5 million to 100 million, with the scientific
consensus currently being around 9 million species.
 ●​ Most described species belong to groups that have been studied extensively
in the past : are larger organisms (e.g. mammals, birds, flowering plants).

●​ Scientists focused on what they see as more appealing groups (e.g. those
with fur or feathers).
●​ Smaller species that are more difficult to identify and study
are less well represented, including some of the most species-diverse groups
:(insects, spiders, bacteria, fungi, etc.).
●​ The lack of finance for scientific research, for collecting specimens from the
more inaccessible regions of the Earth and the necessary work needed to
identify new species, as a consequence groups are significantly under-
recorded.

Current rates of species loss

In order to understand how many species are currently going extinct, existing
species must be identified and named.

●​ The background (natural) level of extinction known from the fossil record is
between 10 and 100 species per year.
●​ Human activities have increased this rate. Because the
total number of classified species is a small fraction of the estimated total of
species, estimates of extinction rates are also varied.

Examples:
●​ from tropical rainforest suggest the Earth is losing 27000 species per
year from those habitats alone.
●​ Mammal species have an average species lifespan, from origin to
extinction, of about 1 million years. There are about 5000 known
mammalian species alive at present.

Causes of species loss

NATURAL
Natural hazard events such as volcanoes, drought, ice ages, and meteor impact
have led to periods of loss of diversity.
Example:
●​ The eruption of Krakatau caused a dust plume that reduced sunlight over
large areas of the globe, reducing surface temperatures.
●​ Changes in the Australian climate through tectonic movement and global
warming have caused increased frequency of fires and a general drying of the
continent that have led to the prevalence of drought and fire-tolerant species
(e.g. Acacia and Eucalyptus) and the extinction of other species.

HUMAN CAUSES

●​ Habitat destruction
This includes habitat degradation, fragmentation, and loss. Agricultural
practices have led to the destruction of native habitats and replaced them with
monocultures (i.e. crops of only one species). Monocultures represent a large
loss of diversity compared to the native ecosystems they replace.

●​ Introduction of invasive species

Species that are introduced to areas and compete with endemic (native)
species: this can lead to the extinction of the native species. Example: The
grey squirrel was introduced into the UK . This species competes with native
red squirrel and has led to such a reduction in red squirrel numbers that the
animal is now rare.
 ●​ Pollution
Pollution includes chemicals, litter, nets, plastic bags, oil spills, and so on.
Pollution damages habitats and kills animals and plants, leading to the loss of
life and reduction in species’ population numbers.
●​ Overharvesting and hunting
Animals are hunted for food, medicines, souvenirs, fashion, and to supply the
exotic pet trade.

Threats to tropical biomes

Tropical biomes are under constant threat, with large areas being lost. An average of
1.5 ha (the size of a football pitch) of tropical rainforest is lost every 4 seconds.
Deforestation and forest degradation are driven by external demands for timber,
beef, land for crops such as soya and oil palm, and biofuels. Developing ‘carbon
markets’ – which value ecosystems as stores of carbon (in vegetation) – could
provide the means to give sufficient monetary value to rainforests to help protect
them. Because of poor nutrients in the soil, it is difficult for rainforests to re-grow
once they have been cleared. A larger amount of timber removal may mean that the
forest never fully recovers because fast- growing, light-loving species (such as vines
and creepers) block out the light for slow growers, so the forest remains at a
sub-climax level.

Determining conservation status

●​ The red list: assess the conservation status of particular species in order to
highlight plants and animals threatened with extinction, and to promote their
conservation.

Factors used to determine a species’ Red List

conservation status:

●​ The range of factors used to determine

conservation status includes the following.
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3.4 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Reasons to preserve the biodiversity:

The value of ecosystems depends on cultural background as well as economic

status. The value of a rainforest to someone who lives in and relies on it for their
livelihood is very different from an outsider who does not have these concerns.
Arguments for preserving species and habitats:

●​ Aesthetic reasons :Species and habitats are pleasant to look at and provide
beauty and inspiration.
●​ Ecological reasons: Rare habitats should be conserved as they may contain
endemic species that require specific habitats. In addition, ecosystems with
high levels of biodiversity are generally more stable and more likely to survive
into the future. Healthy ecosystems are also more likely to provide ecosystem
services such as pollination and flood prevention.
●​ Economic reasons: Species and habitats provide financial income. Species
should be preserved to maintain genetic diversity, so that genetic resources
will be available in the future. Ex: genetic diversity will allow crops to be
improved in the future.
●​ Ethical reasons: Everyone has a responsibility to protect resources for future
generations. Ethical reasons also include the idea that every species has a
right to survive.
●​ Social reasons: Many natural ecosystems around the world provide places to
live for indigenous peoples. Loss of these areas would mean loss of these
peoples’ homes, source of livelihood, and culture. In addition, many areas of
great biodiversity provide an income for local people, such as tourism and
wildlife protection.

Conservation organizations
-conservation organizations that work at both local and global levels are good
at campaigning on key
environmental issues such as climate change and the preservation of
biodiversity.

●​ Non-governmental organizations (NGOs): Are not run by, funded by, or

influenced by governments of any country (e.g. Greenpeace and the
World Wide Fund for Nature,WWF).

●​ Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs): Are bodies established

through international agreements to protect the environment and bring
together governments to work together on an international scale (e.g.
the European Environment Agency(EEA).

EXAMPLES OF HOW ORGANIZATIONS WORK, THEIR

ETHICS,HOW THEY RELATE, THE UNIONS WITH OTHER
ORGANIZATIONS, ETC.
how they promote conservation=
 ●​ International conventions: aim to create collaboration between nations
for biodiversity conservation, provide governments with strategies for conserving
biodiversity. ex. IUCN,WCS,UNEP .

Global and local approaches to environmental

problem solving

How some organizations have an impact in a context…

-global warming will have far-reaching global impacts so a united response to
monitoring and mitigation is more likely to be effective. International agreements
can help to motivate governments to take action and honour their commitments
(e.g. to cut carbon dioxide emissions).

In situ vs. ex situ conservation

“Conservation approaches include habitat conservation, species-based conservation
and a mixed approach”

In situ conservation : the conservation of species in their

natural habitat. Endangered species are conserved
in their native habitat,also they have an habitat and ecosystem in which they live.
They work within the boundaries of conservation areas or
nature reserves.

Ex situ conservation : the preservation of species outside their natural [Link]

place in botanic gardens and zoos, carrying out captive breeding and reintroduction
programmes. The species-based approach to conservation is an approach that
focuses on specific individual species

Designing protected areas

The areas of native habitat can be made into protected areas. This are isolated and
in danger of becoming islands within areas of disturbance, such as cleared land.
When protected areas become islands, they lose some of their diversity due to
increased edge effects.
‘Island biogeography’ theory was developed in the 1960s by Robert
MacArthur and
Edward Wilson.

FACTORS TO ANALYZE BASED ON THE AREA:

●​ Area: if habitats to be preserved are not all found reasonably close together, then
several small reserves may be [Link] overall, bigger is better because one
large area can support more species than several smaller areas (they have more
habitats and can support more top carnivores).The best indicator of species survival
and success of the reserve’s size is the population size of individual species

●​ Edge effect: At the edge of a protected area, there is a change in abiotic factors
(e.g. more wind or warmer and less humid conditions compared to the interior of the
reserve). Edge effects attract species that are not found deeper in the reserve, and
may also attract exotic species from outside the reserve, leading to competition with
forest species = reduction in diversity.

●​ Shape :The best shape for a reserve is a circle because this has the lowest edge
effects. Long thin reserves have large edge effects. In practice, the shape is
determined by what is available and where the habitats to be conserved are located.
Parks tend to be irregular shapes.
 ●​ Corridor: The benefits of linking reserves by corridors include:
-allowing gene flow by immigration and/or emigration
-allowing seasonal movements
-reducing collisions between cars and animals
-having fewer or no roads as these can act as a barrier to some species.

●​ Buffer zone: Areas around conservation areas are called buffer zones. They
contain habitats and may be either managed or undisturbed. These areas minimize
disturbance from
outside influences such as people, agriculture or invasion by diseases or pests. For
example, a nearby large town or extensive disturbance (e.g. logging) can directly
impact a protected area if it is not surrounded by an area that buffers (protects) it from
effects of the disturbance

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered

Species (CITES)

This trade is worth billions of dollars every year and involves hundreds of millions of plant and animal
specimens. Trade in animal and plant specimens (whole organisms, alive or dead, or their parts and derivatives),
as well as factors such as habitat loss, can seriously reduce their wild populations and bring some species close
to extinction. CITES’ aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten the survival of the species in the wild. CITES gives varying degrees of protection to 35 000 species of
animals and plants. Species under threat from extinction are protected under ‘Appendix I’ of CITES.
Commercial trade in wild-caught specimens of these species is illegal (permitted only in exceptional licensed
circumstances).
●​ Captive breeding and reintroduction programmes and zoos:

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Flagship species: are ‘charismatic’ species selected to appeal to the public and thereby
help to protect other species in an area (e.g. the giant panda, meerkats, gorillas). The
advantages of this approach are twofold: money can be raised for the conservation of
other species but are less appealing, and to preserve the habitat of the high-profile animal.

Keystone species: are species that are vital for the continuing function of the
ecosystem: without them the ecosystem may collapse. For example, the agouti of
tropical South and Central America, which feeds on the nuts of the Brazil nut tree.

Approaches to conservation

COMBINATION OF APPROACHES FOR LEADING TO AN EFFECTIVE

CONSERVATION:
Combining both in situ (e.g. protected areas) and ex situ (e.g. zoos and captive
breeding)
methods can be the best solution for species conservation in many instances. A
good
example of this is giant panda conservation.