External Loads
The airworthiness of the aircraft pertains to its capacity to operate safely while using the
airspace as means of transportation. Aircrafts under Normal category are required to follow the
Airworthiness standard expressed in FAR 23 to allow safe and reliable operation. The following
Loads are the primary constraint that both defines the aircraft’s performance limits, and capacity.
Maneuver Loads
Maneuvering Loads also known as load factor are loads experienced by the aircraft on a
sudden change of acceleration. This allows us to determine the required Load the aircraft must
resist at any given flight condition. The load factor for normal category aircraft as specified on
FAR 23.337, is 3.8. Using our previous calculation during weight estimation we could calculate
the lift generated by our aircraft during maneuvers. This is expressed as:
L
n=
W
2
V ρS C Lmin/ max
n(V )=
2W
Where n is the load factor, W is the weight and L is the lift. The 5700 lb. would be the
value for our limit load. This formula could also be applied on negative load factor. A negative
load factor occurs when an aircraft experiences a lift opposite to its direction. This implies a
change in bending load, assuming we have a neutral axis at the middle of the spar, from a
compressive top and tensile bottom would become tensile top and compressive bottom.
Meanwhile FAR 23.2230 indicates that our structural sizing is capable to withstand 1.5
times our limit which is our ultimate load. Meanwhile we should also consider the negative load
factor which implies the aircraft wing’s lift occurs opposite to the conventional direction. This
means that the bending moment also switches from a compressive top and a tension at the
bottom relative to the neutral axis becomes a tension top and a compressive bottom. The limit
load factor at this condition is -1.52.
Gust Loads
Gust loads are loads due to a sudden change of freestream velocity. This creates
change in lift coefficient due to an increase of angle of attack implying an additional external
load the aircraft must overcome if encountered during maneuvers. This is expressed as:
∆L
n=1+
W
Where:
1 2
ρV
2
n=1+ ∆Cl
W/S
External Loads GANNET T731
The change of Cl from a steady flight condition can be expressed as:
∆ Cl=Cl a ∆ α
WhereCl a is the original slope of the wing’s sea level and ∆ α is the ratio of the change in
Velocity which due to gust expressed as:
U de
∆ α=
V
However, we also have to consider the inertia from the aircraft as it cannot respond instantly to
the change of velocity thus:
∆ Cl=K g Cl a ∆ α
The Value of K g is done by using the formula issued by the FAR 23.
0.88 μ
K g=
5.3+ μ
Where the μ is expressed as:
2W
μ=
ρgS c Cl a
Such that the S is the area; g is the acceleration due to gravity and c as the Mean Aerodynamic
chord of the wings. The Values of U de or the vertical gust speeds to be 50ft/s for Cruise
Condition and 25ft/s for Dive Condition which is indicated on FAR 23. For certification purposes
we equate the value of Cl a as 5.73 per rad. FAR 23 uses a conversion factor of 498, However
we are more interested in the ft/s unit for speed thus we now have the formula for the gust load
expressed as:
ρK g U de Va
n(V )=1+
2 ( WS )
V Speeds Description Formula Used (FAR 23) Value/Function
VS Stall Speed Requirement from the Client 75 ft/s
VA Maneuvering Speed V A =V S √ nmax 146.2 ft/s
ρ K g U de Va
n max=1+
( )
VB Gust Design Speed W 136 ft/s
2
S
VC Maximum Cruise V C =0.9V MO 251.0752913 ft/s
Speed
VD Dive Speed V D ≥1.25 V C 313.8441142 ft/s
Structural Element Sizing
External Loads GANNET T731
V MO
V NE
Maximum Operating
Speed
Never Exceed
V EAS =V TAS
√
V NE =0.9 V D
ρsealevel
ρ12,500
278.9725 ft/s
282.459656 ft/s
Speed
V¿ Take off Velocity V ¿ =1.2V S 90 ft/s
Figure 11.2 V speeds
We know that:
TAS=200 knot at 12,500 ft
However, what we are interested with is the aircraft’s velocity at sea level, thus we should
equate the dynamic pressure at 12,500 ft and the dynamic pressure at sea level expressed as:
1 2 1 2
ρ12,500 V TAS = ρ sealevel V EAS
2 2
V EAS =V TAS
√ ρ12,500
ρsealevel
Where:
[ ]
4.26
ρ12,500 0.003566∗12,500
= 1−
ρsealevel 519
ρ12,500
=0.68212
ρsealevel
V EAS =278.9725 ft / s
The EAS value of the True airspeed from the required maximum velocity set by the client would
be used as reference for creating the Vn Diagram shown in Figure11.1.
Structural Element Sizing
External Loads GANNET T731
Figure 11.1 Vn Diagram
The value of VNO for light aircraft is equivalent to the Cruising Velocity V C however at this
condition, the Load factor when experiencing a vertical gust of 50 ft/s exceeds the Design limit
load factor of 3.8. Thus, it is in the discretion of the pilot to only engage on this velocity only on
still or calm wind condition. Since we have a 1.5 factor of safety, we shall multiply this with our
design will use this as a reference load factor in order to promote airworthiness and structural
integrity even when the pilot is operating at V NO and a sudden vertical airflow is experienced. At
low velocity our aircraft requires high value of CL in order to acquire the same lift, which implies
higher angle of attack on this condition. Meanwhile the opposite can be said at high velocity
operating condition which requires us to consider
Control Surface Loads
Force Vs Deflection
Hinge Moment
Torque
Structural Element Sizing
External Loads GANNET T731
Landing Load
Structural Element Sizing
Wing Structure
Wing Structure GANNET T731
Structural Element Sizing
Wing Structure GANNET T731
Structural Element Sizing
Fuselage Structure
Empennage GANNET T731
Structural Element Sizing
Empennage GANNET T731
Structural Element Sizing
Empennage GANNET T731
Structural Element Sizing