A MAC address?

A MAC (Media Access Control) address is the unique 48-bit hardware address of a LAN card.
usually stored in the ROM of the network adapter card.

The MAC address is a unique identifier that manufacturers assign to a network card or device. It is
also known as a physical address represented by hexadecimal digits. Each MAC address is unique
worldwide and, in theory, they are fixed for each device.

Each MAC address includes six pairs of numbers. The first three pairs help to identify the
manufacturer and the next three to the specific model. It is important to bear in mind that a computer
may have a variety of hardware to connect to networks; thus, it is common to have a MAC address
for Ethernet, one for Wi-Fi, and another for Bluetooth

Differentiate between 'attenuation', 'distortion', and 'noise'.

When a signal travels through a medium, it loses some of its energy due to the resistance of the
medium. This loss of energy is called attenuation.

When a signal travels through a medium from one point to another, it may change the form or shape
of the signal. This is known as distortion.

Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the quality of signals and data.

An IP address:

An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical unique address of a device in a network. IP
is a datagram-oriented connectionless protocol, therefore each packet must contain a header with the
source IP address, the destination IP address, and other data in order to be delivered successfully.

There are two types of IPS-

 Private IP Address - A private IP address is a set of numbers that are assigned to each computer or
system, connected to a private network. An example of a private IP address is your mobile phone
or your home router which have a default local address.

Public IP Address - Public IP addresses are global addresses, visible to anyone browsing the Internet.
A user just needs an internet connection to connect to such devices.
TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP Model has four-layers

Layer Description

Network Interface Network Interface is also called a network access layer. It defines how
data should be sent physically using the network.

Internet It enables hosts to insert packets into the network and have them
delivered to the destination, on the same network, or another remote
network.

Transport This layer permits devices on the source and destination hosts to carry on
a conversation. It ensures reliability, flow control, and correction of data
that is being sent over the network.

Application It is the topmost layer of the model. It defines TCP/IP application

The limited range of frequencies of signals that a line can carry is called the bandwidth. Bandwidth is
often confused with Internet speed when it is actually the volume of information that can be sent over
a connection in a measured amount of time, calculated in megabits per second (Mbps).

Logically the bandwidth of our network will be decisive for its quality and speed. The more
bandwidth we have, the better, since the faster we can transfer data.

'firewalls'

A firewall is a network security system, responsible to manage network traffic. It uses a set of
security rules to prevent remote access and content filtering. Firewalls are used to protect the systems
or networks from viruses, worms, malware, etc. Firewalls are usually of types-

Physical - A physical firewall or hardware firewall is a physical device, sits between the external
network and the server. They analyze incoming traffic and filter out any threats to the device. Widely
used in institutions and large companies.

Logical - A logical or software firewall can exist anywhere on the subnet and protects hosts
anywhere on the subnet without rewiring. They only protect the computer on which they are
installed, and in many cases, they are integrated into the operating system itself.

routers

Routers connect two or more network segments. These intelligent network devices store information
in their routing tables such as paths, hops, and bottlenecks. They determine the most accurate data
transfer paths and operate in Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Network Layer.

The roles of a router include:

 Inter-network communication

 Best path selection

 Packet forwarding

 Packet filtering
 Coaxial cable

This cable contains a conductor insulator branding, and sheath The sheath so the branding, the
braiding covers the insulation, and the insulation covers the conductor The following image shows
these components

Twisted-pair cables

The twisted-pair cable was primarily developed for computer networks This cable is also known as
Ethernet cable. Almost all modern LAN computer networks use this cable.

This cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires Every two wires are twisted around
each other to form pair.

There are two types of twisted-pair cable: UTP and STP

In the UTP (Unshielded twisted-pair) cable, all pairs are wrapped in a single plastic sheath.

In the STP (Shielded twisted-pair) cable, each pair is wrapped with an additional metal shield. then
all pairs are wrapped in a single outer plastic sheath.

Similarities and differences between STP and UTP cables

 Both STP and UTP can transmit data at 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, and 10Gbps.
 Since the STP cable contains more materials, it is more expensive than the UTP cable.
 Both cables use the same RJ-45 (registered jack) modular connectors.
 Both cables can accommodate a maximum of 1024 nodes in each segment.
 The STP provides more noise and EMI resistance than the UTP cable.
 The maximum segment length for both cables is 100 meters or 328 feet.

Fiber optic cable

This cable consists of a core, cladding, buffer, and jacket. The core is made from thin strands of glass
or plastic that can carry data over a long distance. The core is wrapped in the cladding. the cladding
is wrapped in the buffer, and the buffer is wrapped in the jacket.

 Core carries the data signals in the form of light.

Fiber optic cable is completely immune to EMI and RFI. This cable can transmit data over a long distance
at the highest speed. It can transmit data up to 40 kilometers at the speed of 100Gbps.

Fiber optic uses light to send data. It reflects light from one endpoint to another. Based on how many
beams of light are transmitted at a given time, there are two types of fiber optical cable, SMF and MMF.
 The different types of network cables used in networking?

The different types of cables used in networks are-

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

 Cable Installation Guides

 Coaxial Cable

 Fibre Optic Cable/

 Wireless LANs

 client' and 'server' in a network

 Clients and servers are separate logical entities that work together over a network to
accomplish a task.

 A client application is the element of communication that requests or requests a network

 A server application is the element of communication that responds to customer requests,

 The client-server model is used by computer applications such as email, the worldwide web,
and network printing.

 A 'frame relay' and in which layer does it operate?

 Frame Relay is a data link layer digital packet-switched network protocol technology
designed to connect local area networks (LANS) and transfer data over wide area networks
(WANS). Frame Relay shares some of the same underlying technology as X.25.

 It is based on the older X.25 packet-switching technology that was designed to transmit
analogue data as voice conversations. Unlike X.25, which was designed for analogue signals,
Frame Relay is a fast packet technology, which means that the protocol does not attempt to
correct errors. It is often used to connect LANS with main backbones, as well as in public
wide area networks and in private network environments with leased T-1 lines. It requires a
dedicated connection during the transmission period and is not ideal for voice or video,
which require a constant stream of transmissions.