Sir tsaac Newton (1642-1727) was an English natural philosopher, a professor of ‘mathematics at Cambridge University, and president ofthe Royal Society. Iis Principia Mathematica (1687), which deals with the laws and conditions of ‘motion, is considered tobe the greatest scientific work ever produced. The def tions of force, mass, nd momentum and his tree laws of motion crop up contin= wally in dynamics, Quite fittingly, the unit of force named “newton” in SI units Ihappens tobe the approximate weight of an average apple, the falling object that inspired him to study the laws of gravity. (ustration of David Eugene Smith, History ofMathematics, ol. General Survey ofthe History 0 Elementary Mathematics, Dover Publications, ine., New York, 1958.) CHAPTER 2 Free Vibration of Single-Degree- of-Freedom Systems Chapter Outline Chapter Outline 124 28 Parameter Variations and Root Locus Leaming Objectives 125 Representations 176 24 Introduction 126 2.9 Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping 185 22. Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational «2.10 Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping 192 System 129 2.41 Stability of Systems 198 23° Free Vibration of an Undamped Torsional 2.12 Examples Using MATLAB 202 System 146 Chapter Summary 208 24 Response of First-Order Systems and Time References 209 Constant 151 Review Questions 209 25 Rayleigh’s Energy Method 153 Problems 214 2.6 Free Vibration with Viscous Damping 158 2.7 Graphical Representation of Characteristic Roots and Corresponding Solutions 174 Design Projects 256 124LEARNING OBJECTIVES 125 This chapter starts with a consideration of the free vibration of an undamped single-degree- of-freedom (spring-mass) system. Free vibration means that the mass is set into motion due to initial disturbance with no externally applied force other than the spring force, damper force, or gravitational force. To study the free-vibration response of the mass, we need to derive the governing equation, known as the equation ofmotion. The equation of motion of the undamped translational system is derived using four methods. The natural frequency of vibration of the system is defined and the solution of the equation of motion is presented using appropriate initial conditions. The solution is shown to represent har- ‘monic motion. The equation of motion and the solution corresponding to free vibration of, an undamped torsional system are presented, ‘The response of first-order systems and the time constant are considered. Rayleigh’s method, based on the principle of conservation of energy, is presented with illustrative examples. Next, the derivation of the equation for the free vibration of a viscously damped single- degree-of freedom system and its solution are considered. The concepts of critical damp- ing constant, damping ratio, and frequency of damped vibration are introduced. ‘The distinctions between underdamped, critically damped, and overdamped systems are ic damp ing and loss coefficient are considered, Viscously damped torsional systems are also con- sidered analogous to viscously damped translational systems with applications. The graphical representation of characteristic roots and the corresponding solutions as well as the concept of parameter variations and root locus plots are considered. The equations of ‘motion and their solutions of single-degree-of-freedom systems with Coulomb and hys- teretic damping are presented. The concept of complex stiffness is also presented. The idea of stability and its importance is explained along with an example. The determina- tion of the responses of single-degree-of-freedom systems using MATLAB is illustrated with examples. explained. The energy dissipated in viscous damping and the concepts of sp% Learning Ob pctives After completing this chapter, you should be able to do the following: «Derive the equation of motion of a single-degree-of-freedom system using a suitable technique such as Newton’s second law of motion, D’ Alembert’s principle, the prin- ciple of virtual displacements, and the principle of conservation of energy. ‘« Linearize the nonlinear equation of motion. «Solve a spring-mas ;-damper system for different types of free-vibration response depending on the amount of damping. + Compute the natural frequency, damped frequency, logarithmic decrement, and time constant. «Determine whether a given system is stable or not, «Find the responses of systems with Coulomb and hysteretic damping. «Find the free-vibration response using MATLAB.126 2.1 CHAPTER 2. FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS Introduction A system is said to undergo free vibration when it oscillates only under an initial distur- bance with no extemal forces acting afterward. Some examples are the oscillations of the pendulum of a grandfather clock, the vertical oscillatory motion felt by a bicyclist after hit- ting a road bump, and the motion of a child on a swing after an initial push. Figure 2.1 (a) shows a spring-mass system that represents the simplest possible vibra- tory system, Itis called a single-degree-o f feedom system, since one coordinate (x) is suf- ficient to specify the position of the mass at any time. There is no extemal force applied to the mass; hence the motion resulting from an initial disturbance will be free vibration, Free eng pate j—m et, +--stretched length—+| ) © FIGURE 2.1 A spring-mass system in horizontal position. FIGURE 2.2 Equivalent spring- mass system for the cam-follower system of Fig, 1.32.21 INTRODUCTION 127 Since there is no element that causes dissipation of energy during the motion of the mass, the amplitude of motion remains constant with time; itis an undamped system. In actual practice, except in a vacuum, the amplitude of free vibration diminishes gradually over time, due to the resistance offered by the surrounding medium (such as air). Such vibra- tions are said to be damped. The study of the free vibration of undamped and damped single-degree-of-freedom systems is fundamental to the understanding of more advanced topics in vibrations. Several mechanical and structural systems can be idealized as single-degree-of-freedom systems. In many practical systems, the mass is distributed, but for a simple analysis, it can be approximated by a single point mass. Similarly, the elasticity of the system, which may be distributed throughout the system, can also be idealized by a single spring. For the cam- follower system shown in Fig. 1.39, for example, the various masses were replaced by an equivalent mass (meq) in Example 1.7. The elements of the follower system (pushrod, rocker arm, valve, and valve spring) are all elastic but can be reduced to a single equivalent spring of stiffness keq- Fora simple analysis, the cam-follower system can thus be idealized as a single-degree-of-freedom spring-mass system, as shown in Fig. 2,2. Similarly, the structure shown in Fig. 2.3 can be considered a cantilever beam that is fixed at the ground. For the study of transverse vibration, the top mass can be considered a FIGURE 2.3 The space needle (structure).128 CHAPTER2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS point mass and the supporting structure (beam) can be approximated as a spring to obtain the single-degree-of-freedom model shown in Fig. 2.4, The building frame shown in Fig, 2.5(a) can also be idealized as a spring-mass system, as shown in Fig, 2.5(b). In this case, since the spring constant k is merely the ratio of force to deflection, it can be deter- mined from the geometric and material properties of the columns. The mass of the ideal- ized system is the same as that of the floor if we assume the mass of the columns to be negligible, ™ , geen (b) Equivalent spring-mass system (2) Ideatization of the al structure FIGURE 2.4 Modeling of tll structure as spring-mass system Rigid floor x) (amass = m) x) v ” Z EO) k ™~ — m ~ Elastic columns ~~ (mass is negligible) N (8) Building frame (b) Equivalent spring: mass system FIGURE 2.5. idealization of a building frame.2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM 129 2.2 Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational System 2.21 Using Newton's second law of motion, in this section we will consider the derivation of the Equation of equation of motion. The procedure we will use can be summarized as follows: Motion Using Newton’s Second 1. Select a suitable coordinate to describe the position of the mass or rigid body in the Law of Motion system, Use a linear coordinate to describe the linear motion of a point mass or the centroid of a rigid body, and an angular coordinate to describe the angular motion of a rigid body. 2. Determine the static equilibrium configuration of the system and measure the di placement of the mass or rigid body from its static equilibrium position, Draw the free-body diagram of the mass or rigid body when a positive displacement and velocity are given to it. Indicate all the active and reactive forces acting on the mass or rigid body. 4. Apply Newton’s second law of motion to the mass or rigid body shown by the free- body diagram, Newton's second law of motion can be stated as follows: The rate o fehange ofmomentum ofa mass is equal fo the force acting on it ‘Thus, if mass m is displaced a distance ¥(t) when acted upon by a resultant force F(t) in the same direction, Newton’s second law of motion gives =, ax 7) =A (m a) If mass m is constant, this equation reduces to @ay where: = _ & Ht) ge ar is the acceleration of the mass. Equation (2.1) can be stated in words as Resultant force on the mass = mass X acceleration For a rigid body undergoing rotational motion, Newton’s law gives Mi) =J6 (2.2) where M is the resultant moment acting on the body and 6 and @ = d26(1) /dt? are the resulting angular displacement and angular acceleration, respectively. Equation (2.1) or (2.2) represents the equation of motion of the vibrating system. ‘The procedure is now applied to the undamped single-degree-of-freedom system shown in Fig. 2.1(a). Here the mass is supported on frictionless rollers and can have130 CHAPTER2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 2.2.2 Equation of Motion Using Other Methods translatory motion in the horizontal direction. When the mass is displaced a distance +x from its static equilibrium position, the force in the spring is kx, and the free-body diagram of the mass can be represented as shown in Fig, 2.1(c). The application of Eq. (2.1) to mass 'm yields the equation of motion F(t) = ~kx = mi mi + kx =0 23) As stated in Section 1.6, the equations of motion of a vibrating system can be derived using several methods. The applications of D’Alembert’s principle, the principle of virtual dis- placements, and the principle of conservation of energy are considered in this section. D’Alembert’s Principle, The equations of motion, Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), can be rewritten as a (i) — m¥ =0 (24a) M1) - 16 =0 (2.4b) These equations can be considered equilibrium equations provided that —m¥ and —J@ are treated as a force and a moment. This fictitious force (or moment) is known as the inertia force (or inertia moment) and the artificial state of equilibrium implied by Eq, (2.43) or (2.4b) is known as dynamic equilibrium, This principle, implied in Eq. (2.4a) or (2.4b), is led D’Alembert’s principle. Applying it to the system shown in Fig. 2.1(c) yields the equation of motion: kx — m¥ = 00 or mi + kx = (23) Principle of Virtual Displacements. The principle of virtual displacements states that “if a system that is in equilibrium under the action of a set of forces is subjected to a virtual displacement, then the total virtual work done by the forces will be zero.” Here the virtual displacement is defined as an imaginary infinitesimal displacement given instantancously. It must be a physically possible displacement that is compatible with the constraints of the system. The virtual work is defined as the work done by all the forces, including the inertia forces for a dynamic problem, due to a virtual displacement. Consider a spring-mass system in a displaced position as shown in Fig. 2.6(a), where xrdenotes the displacement of the mass. Figure 2.6(b) shows the free-body diagram of the ‘mass with the reactive and inertia forces indicated. When the mass is given a virtual dis- placement 6x, as shown in Fig. 2.6(b), the virtual work done by each force can be com- puted as follows: Virtual work done by the spring force — 6W, = —(kx) 8x Virtual work done by the inertia force = 6%; = mi) 6x2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM 131 ke ke ne (reactive (inertia force) force) (@) Mass under a (b) Free-body diagram displacement x FIGURE 2.6 Mass under virtual displacement. When the total virtual work done by all the forces is set equal to zero, we obtain —mibx — kxdx = 0 (25) Since the virtual displacement can have an arbitrary value, 6x # 0, Eq, (2.5) gives the equation of motion of the spring-mass system as mi + kx =0 (23) Principle of Conservation of Energy. A system is said to be conservative if no energy is lost due to friction or energy-dissipating nonelastic members, If no work is done on a conservative system by external forces (other than gravity or other potential forces), then the total energy of the system remains constant. Since the energy of a vibrating system is partly potential and partly kinetic, the sum of these two energies remains constant. The kinetic energy 7 is stored in the mass by virtue of its velocity, and the potential energy U is stored in the spring by virtue of its elastic deformation. Thus the principle of conservation of energy can be expressed as: or “(7 +u) =0 (2.6) The kinetic and potential energies are given by T =5mi? 7) and u (28) ‘Substitution of Eqs. (2.7) and (2.8) into Eq, (2.6) yields the desired equation mi + kx =0 (23)132 CHAPTER 2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 2.2.3 Consider the configuration of the spring-mass system shown in Fig. 2.7(a). The mass Equation of hangs at the lower end of a spring, which in tur is attached to a rigid support at its upper Motion of a end. At rest, the mass will hang in a position called the static equilibrium position, in Spring-Mass which the upward spring force exactly balances the downward gravitational force on the System in ‘mass. In this position the length of the spring is Ig + 5,,, where 8, is the static deflection— Vertical Position the elongation due to the weight W of the mass m, From Fig. 2.7(a), we find that, for static, equilibrium, W = mg = kd. 29) where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Let the mass be deflected a distance +x from its static equilibrium position; then the spring force is —k(x + 8,), as shown in Fig. 2.7(c). The application of Newton’s second law of motion to mass m gives mit = -K(x + 64) + W and since kB, = W, we obtain mi + kx =0 2.10) AAVKE 8, + ° Static equilibrium position Wome Wike « ) Mog +) Spring force + {Potential m energy w ——— position © @ FIGURE 2.7 A spring-mass system in vertical postion.2.2.4 Solution 2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM 133 Notice that Eqs. (2.3) and (2.10) are identical. This indicates that when a mass moves in a vertical direction, we can ignore its weight, provided we measure x from its static equi- librium position. Note: Equation (2.10), the equation of motion of the system shown in Fig. 2.7, can also be derived using D’ Alembert’s principle, the principle of virtual displacements, or the principle of conservation of energy. If we use the latter, for example, we note that the expression for the kinetic energy, 7, remains the same as Eq, (2.7). However, the expres- sion for the potential energy, U, is to be derived by considering the weight of the mass. For this we note that the spring force at static equilibrium position (2. = 0) is mg. When the spring deflects by an amount x, its potential energy is given by (see Fig. 2.7(d)): 1 gx + >kx? erty Furthermore, the potential energy of the system due to the change in elevation of the mass (note that +x is downward) is —mgzx. Thus the net potential energy of the system about the static equilibrium position is given by U = potential energy of the spring + change in potential energy due to change in elevation of the mass m Lie Lay = mgx + Skx? — mgx = kx Ber a Since the expressions of T and U remain unchanged, the application of the principle of conservation of energy gives the same equation of motion, Eq, (2.3). ‘The solution of Bq, (2.3) can be found by assuming x(t) = Ce (uy where C and s are constants to be determined, Substitution of Eq. (2.11) into Eq, (2.3) gives Since C cannot be zero, we have ms +k =0 (2.12) and hence . -(-4) = tie, 13)134 CHAPTER 2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 2.2.5 Harmonic Motion where i = (—1)'/? 1/2 On = (4) (2.14) m Equation (2.12) is called the auxiliary or the characteristic equation corresponding to the dif- ferential Eq, (2.3). The two values of s given by Eq. (2.13) are the roots of the characteristic equation, also known as the eigenvalues or the characteristic values of the problem. Since both values of s satisfy Eq. (2.12), the general solution of Eq, (2.3) can be expressed as x(t) = Cyel@et + Caen! (215) where C; and C2 are constants. By using the identities iat = cos at + i sin at Eg. (2.15) can be rewritten as_ x(1) = Ay cos wyt + Ap sin ogt 216) where Aj and Ap are new constants. The constants C; and Cor Ay and Ap can be deter- ‘mined from the initial conditions of the system. Two conditions are to be specified to eval- uate these constants uniquely. Note that the number of conditions to be specified is the same as the order of the governing differential equation. In the present case, if the values of displacement x(t) and velocity (1) = (dx/df)(t) are specified as xg and iy att = 0, we have, from Eq. (2.16), x(t = 0) = Ay = x0 H(t = 0) = oz = Fo 17 Hence A; = Xo and Ap = .ip/ 4. Thus the solution of Eq, (2.3) subject to the initial con- ditions of Eq. (2.17) is given by x(1) = 19 C08 opt + 22 sin wet (2.18) Equations (2.15), (2.16), and (2.18) are harmonic functions of time. The motion is sym- ‘metric about the equilibrium position of the mass m. The velocity is a maximum and the acceleration is zero each time the mass passes through this position. At the extreme dis- placements, the velocity is zero and the acceleration is a maximum. Since this represents simple harmonic motion (see Section 1.10), the spring-mass system itself is called a harmonic oscillator. The quantity «, given by Eq, (2.14), represents the system’s natural frequency of vibration Equation (2.16) can be expressed in a different form by introducing the notation Al = Acos Az = Asing (219)2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM 135, where A and ¢ are the new constants, which can be expressed in terms of A; and A2 as +s) ] = ampltede ) = phase angle (2.20) > f * i Introducing Eq, (2.19) into Eq, (2.16), the solution can be written as x(1) = [Link] (et — 4) (221) By using the relations A = Aosin dy Az = Ap cos by (2.22) Eq, (2.16) can also be expressed as x(t) = Agsin (apt + bo) (2.23) where (2.24) and (2.25) The nature of harmonic oscillation can be represented graphically as in Fig. 2.8(a). If A denotes a vector of magnitude 4, which makes an angle o,f — with respect to the vertical (2) axis, then the solution, Bq, (2.21), can be seen to be the projection of the vector A on the x-axis. The constants A, and Ay of Eq, (2.16), given by Eq, (2.19), are merely the rectangular components of A along two orthogonal axes making angles & and —(3 — 6) with respect to the vector A. Since the angle w, — @ is a linear function of time, it increases linearly with time; the entire diagram thus rotates counterclockwise at an angular velocity «,, As the diagram (Fig. 2.8a) rotates, the projection of A onto the x-axis varies harmonically so that the motion repeats itself every time the vector A sweeps an angle of 2a. The projection of A, namely 241), is shown plotted in Fig. 2,8(b) as a function of apf, and as a function of tin Fig. 2.8(c). The phase angle ¢ can also be interpreted as the angle ‘between the origin and the first peak.136 CHAPTER2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS s(0) = Acos (ugt~ 4) (a) ) co) 4 ' Velocity maximum x ! / oft o |r ~ Amba, {aae (YF M0) = Acos (ait ~ 6) ee Need T © FIGURE 2.8 Graphical representation of the motion ofa harmonie oscillator. Note the following aspects of the spring-mass system: 1, If the spring-mass system is in a vertical position, as shown in Fig, 2.7(a), the cireu- Jar natural frequency can be expressed as K\2 on (= (2.26)2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM 137 ‘The spring constant k can be expressed in terms of the mass m from Eq, (2.9) as W_ mg RS Oy 2.27) Substitution of Eq, (2.27) into Eq, (2.14) yields 2 Vr on (5 (2.28) Hence the natural frequency in cy es per second and the natural period are given by e\2 Ba, (2.29) 1 Bap \? soohon() om ‘Thus, when the mass vibrates in a vertical direction, we can compute the natural fre- quency and the period of vibration by simply measuring the static deflection 5, We don’t need to know the spring stiffness k and the mass m. From Eq, (2.21), the velocity (1) and the acceleration ¥(1) of the mass m at time t can be obtained as tn x(t) -£0 = —w,A sin(wpt — 6) = @,A cos (2 ot 2) @x 2 8) =H) = WBA cos (wt — 8) = OFA cos(ant — b+) 2.31) Equation (2.31) shows that the velocity leads the displacement by 2/2 and the accel- eration leads the displacement by 7. If the initial displacement (.x9) is zero, Eq, (2.21) becomes x(t) = Bes( 0 - 2) = sinaogt 232) If the initial velocity (9) is zero, however, the solution becomes (1) = x9 C08 pt (2.33)138 CHAPTER2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 4. The response of a single-degree-of-freedom system can be represented in the dis- placement (x)-velocity -plane, known as the state space or phase plane. For this we consider the displacement given by Eq, (2.21) and the corresponding velocity: x(t) = Acos( wt — d) 4(0) = ~Awgsin( ont = 6) 34) x y sin(wt — 6) = fo, a (2.35) where y = %/c,. By squaring and adding Eqs. (2.34) and (2.35), we obtain cos%(wnt = &) + sin’a,t = 6) =1 or ' (2.36) The graph of Eq, (2.36) in the (x, )-plane is a circle, as shown in Fig. 2.9(a), and it constitutes the phase-plane or state-space representation of the undamped sys tem, The radius of the circle, A, is determined by the initial conditions of motion Note that the graph of Eq, (2.36) in the (.x, x)-plane will be an ellipse, as shown in Fig. 2.9(b). A Aw, TN (a) (b) FIGURE 2.9 Phase-plane representation of an undamped system— EXAMPLE 2.1 2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM 139 Harmonic Response of a Water Tank The column of the water tank shown in Fig. 2.1 O(a) is 300 ft high and is made of reinforced concrete ‘with a tubular cross section of inner diameter 8 ft and outer diameter 10 ft. The tank weighs 6 X 10"Ib When filled with water, By neglecting the mass of the column and assuming the Young's modulus of reinforced concrete as 4 X 10° psi, determine the following: ‘a. the natural frequency and the natural time period of transverse vibration of the water tank. 1b. the vibration response of the water tank due to an initial transverse displacement of 10 in. the maximum values of the velocity and acceleration experienced by the water tank. Solution: Assuming that the water tank is a point mass, the column has a uniform cross section, and ‘the mass of the column is negligible, the system can be modeled as a cantilever beam with a concentrated load (weight) at the free end as shown in Fig. 2.10(6). ‘AL The transverse deflection of the beam, 8, due to a load P is given by 4p, where fis the length, E is the Young's modulus, and /is the area moment of inertia of the beam's cross section. The stiffness of the beam (column ofthe tank) is given by 3eL > "Tn @ (b) FIGURE 2.10 Elevated tank. (Photo courtesy of West Lafayeite Water Company.)140 CHAPTER 2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS In the present case, 1 = 3600 in, E = 4 x 10° psi, as — at) = Z (1204 — 964 = x 10in 1 = Zai — af) = Zaa0* — 964) = 600.9554 x 10 and hence 3(4 x 10%)(600.9554 x 104) b= = 545.6672 tin 3600° ‘The natural frequency of the water tank in the transverse direction is given by [TSaS66T x SHOE 6 x10 0.9977 radisee The natural time period of transverse vibration of the tank is given by Qn dn @, 09977 m= = 6.2977 see 1b. Using the initial displacement of xp = 10 in. and the initial velocity of the water tank (9) as zero, the harmonic response of the water tank can be expressed, using Eq. (2.23), as (1) = Asin (ont + da) ‘here the amplitude of transverse displacement (Ag) is given by and the phase angle (cba) by Thus x(t) =10sin (ovr + 2) = 10 cos 0.9977 in. (El) €. The velocity of the water tank can be found by differentiating Eg. (E.1) as X(t) = 10(0.9977) cos (0 9971 +F (E2) and hence Fax = Agtdy = 10(0.9977) = 9.977 [Link]