The
Solar
System
UNIT
4
Section
1
Models
of
the
Solar
System
▪ 2,000
years
ago,
many
people
developed
ideas
about
the
universe
based
on
what
they
saw
!
▪ Aristotle
promoted
an
earth-‐centered
(geocentric)
model
of
solar
system
!
▪ Sun,
stars,
planets
revolved
around
earth
▪ Did
not
explain
why
some
planets
appear
to
reverse
direction
sometimes
▪ Backward
motion
à retrograde
motion
▪ About
500
years
after
Aristotle,
another
Greek
astronomer,
Claudius
Ptolemy,
put
forth
model
▪ Each
planet
had
two
motions
▪ One
motion
was
revolution
around
earth
▪ Other
motion
in
small
circles
like
links
of
chain
▪ Epicycles à small
circular
movements
▪ According
to
Ptolemy,
motion
of
planet
in
epicycle
would
make
it
appear
to
move
backward
sometimes
Copernicus’s
Model
▪ In
the
1500s
Nicolaus
Copernicus
challeneged
ideas
of
Aristotle
and
Ptolemy
▪ Proposed
a
heliocentric
(sun-‐centered)
model
of
solar
system
▪ Earth
and
other
planets
revolve
around
sun
▪ Also
proposed
all
planets
orbit
in
same
direction
but
each
moves
at
different
speeds
and
distances
from
sun
▪ Faster
planets
would
pass
slower
planets
▪ In
early
1600s
Galileo
Galilei
was
able
to
observe
motions
of
planets
with
telescope
(just
invented)
▪ He
collected
evidence
▪ Proved
heliocentric
model
was
correct
Kepler’s
Laws
▪ Before
the
invention
of
the
telescope,
Tycho
Brahe,
Danish
astronomer,
made
detailed
observations
of
positions
of
stars
and
planets
▪ He
hired
German
astronomer,
Johannes
Kepler,
as
an
assistant
▪ Kepler
explained
Brahe’s
observations
in
mathematical
terms
▪ Developed
3
laws
that
explained
most
aspects
of
planetary
motion
1.
Law
of
Ellipses
▪ Kepler’s
first
law
▪ Each
planet
orbits
the
sun
in
a
path
called
an
ellipse
▪ Ellipse
à oval
whose
shape
is
determined
by
2
points
within
the
figure
▪ Each
point
is
called
a
focus
▪ The
sun
is
at
one
focus
of
the
orbit
of
a
planet
▪ If
you
draw
a
line
from
any
point
on
ellipse
to
each
of
two
foci,
the
total
length
of
lines
will
always
be
the
same
▪ Some
look
like
circles
▪ Circle
–
ellipse
where
2
foci
are
at
same
point
▪ b/c
orbits
of
planets
are
ellipses,
planet
is
not
always
same
distance
from
sun
▪ Point
where
orbit
is
closest
to
sun
-‐
perihelion
▪ Point
where
orbit
is
farthest
-‐
aphelion
▪ Distance
of
planet
from
sun
defined
as
average
of
distances
from
sun
at
perihelion
and
aphelion
▪ Ex.
Aphelion
of
Earth’s
orbit
is
152
million
km
▪ Perihelion
is
147
million
km
▪ Average
=
149.5
million
km
▪ This
distance
is
known
as
one
astronomical
unit
(AU)
▪ Distances
of
other
planets
measured
in
AU
2.
Law
of
Equal
Areas
▪ Describes
speed
at
which
planets
travel
at
different
points
in
their
orbit
▪ Kepler
found
that
orbit
of
earth
was
a
nearly
perfect
circle,
with
sun
off-‐center
▪ Found
that
earth
moves
fastest
when
it’s
closest
to
sun
▪ Calculated
a
line
from
center
of
sun
to
center
of
planet
sweeps
through
equal
areas
in
equal
periods
of
time
▪ Imagine
a
line
that
connects
the
center
of
the
sun
to
the
center
of
a
planet
▪ When
planet
near
sun,
the
line
is
short
▪ Planet
moves
quickly
and
after,
say,
10
days
the
line
sweeps
through
a
short,
wide
triangular
section
▪ When
planet
is
farther
from
sun,
line
is
longer
▪ But
planet
moves
more
slowly
▪ Line
sweeps
through
long,
thin
triangular
section
in
10
days
▪ Kepler’s
second
law
à the
area
of
the
long,
thin
section
is
the
same
as
the
area
of
the
short,
wider
section
3.
Law
of
Periods
▪ Describes
relationship
between
average
distance
of
a
planet
from
the
sun
and
the
orbit
period
of
the
planet
!
▪ Orbit
period
à time
required
for
the
planet
to
make
one
revolution
around
the
sun
▪ The
cube
of
the
average
distance
of
a
planet
from
the
sun
(r)
is
always
proportional
to
the
square
of
the
period
(p)
▪ Math
formula
is
K
x
r³ = p²
▪ K is mathematical constant
▪ When distance measure in Aus and period is
in earth-‐years, K = 1 and r³ = p²
Example
▪ Radius
of
earth’s
orbit
(distance
from
sun)
is
1
AU
▪ Period
is
1
year
▪ 1
x
1³ = 1²
▪ 1 = 1
▪ Jupiter
is
5.2
AU
from
sun
▪ Period
is
11.9
years
▪ K
x
5.2³ = 11.9²
▪ K x 140.6 = 141.6
▪ Nearly equal
▪ Errors caused by rounding periods and Aus
▪ When precise, always 1
Newton’s
Application
of
Kepler’s
Laws
▪ Kepler’s
laws
explained
how
planets
orbit
sun
▪ Isaac
Newton
asked
why
planets
moved
this
way
▪ Explanation
described
the
motion
of
objects
on
earth
and
motion
of
planets
in
space
▪ Hypothesized
that
moving
body
will
change
motion
only
if
outside
force
causes
it
to
do
so
▪ Inertia
à tendency
of
a
moving
body
to
move
in
a
straight
line
at
a
constant
speed
until
an
outside
force
acts
on
it
▪ Newton
compared
planet
to
rolling
ball
▪ b/c
planet
doesn’t
follow
straight
path,
outside
force
must
cause
it
to
curve
▪ Gravity
▪ Gravitational
pull
of
sun
causes
planets
to
move
around
it
The
Inner
Planets
Section
2
▪ 4
planets
closest
to
sun
are
inner
planets
▪ Mercury,
Venus,
Earth,
Mars
▪ Also
called
terrestrial
planets
b/c
they’re
similar
to
earth
▪ Formed
close
to
sun
so
heat
caused
materials
with
low
boiling
points
to
go
away
▪ Inner
planets
don’t
have
rings
▪ Number
of
moons:
0-‐2
▪ Have
bowl-‐shaped
depressions
on
surface
called
impact
craters
▪ From
collisions
with
objects
in
space
(later
stages
of
solar
system
formation)
Mercury
▪ Mercury
is
closest
to
sun
▪ Has
shorter
orbit
period
than
any
other
planet
–
88
days
▪ Romans
named
planet
Mercurius
after
fast
messenger
of
gods
▪ Rotates
slowly
on
axis
–
once
every
59
days
▪ So
close
to
sun
the
sunlight
usually
blocks
a
clear
view
▪ Has
no
moons
▪ In
1974
and
1979
Mariner
10
visited
Mercury
▪ Transmitted
photos
to
earth
that
showed
surface
was
heavily
cratered
▪ Suggests
Mercury
hasn’t
changed
much
since
formation
of
solar
system
▪ Some
craters
look
filled
with
hardened
lava
▪ If
so,
Mercury
was
volcanic
▪ Photos
also
showed
line
of
cliffs
hundreds
of
km
long
▪ May
be
wrinkles
in
crust
that
developed
when
molten
core
cooled
and
shrank
▪ Has
thin
atmosphere
for
2
reasons
▪ 1.
closeness
to
sun
▪ Solar
heat
causes
gas
molecules
near
surface
to
move
fast
▪ 2.
size
▪ Gravitational
pull
too
weak
to
hold
them
to
form
an
atmosphere
▪ Absence
of
dense
atmosphere
and
slow
rotation
causes
huge
daily
temperature
range
!
▪ Daytime:
427℃
!
▪ Nighttime: -‐173℃
▪ Before
Mariner
10
expedition,
astronomers
thought
Mercury
too
small
and
rotated
too
slowly
to
have
magnetic
field
!
▪ Instruments
on
Mariner
10
detected
weak
magnetic
field
!
▪ Core
may
still
be
molten
Venus
▪ 2nd
planet
from
sun
▪ Orbit
period
=
225
days
▪ Rotates
once
very
243
days
▪ Rotates
in
opposite
direction
than
other
planets
▪ Sun
rises
in
west
and
sets
in
east
▪ No
moons
▪ Some
ways
Venus
is
earth’s
twin
▪ Same
size,
mass,
density
▪ Venus
is
much
hotter
b/c
it’s
closer
to
sun
and
atmosphere
is
dense
and
has
insulating
effect
▪ Average
surface
temp
is
464℃
▪ Atmospheric pressure is 90 times more than
earth
▪ High
temperature
and
dense
atmosphere
are
related
▪ When
Venus
was
formed,
temp
was
lower
and
atmosphere
was
less
dense
▪ Volcanic
activity
happened
▪ Oceans
may
have
formed
▪ As
sun
became
hotter,
oceans
evaporated
▪ No
water
to
combine
with
CO2
released
by
volcanoes,
level
of
CO2
increased
▪ Result:
atmospheric
pressure
increased
▪ CO2
is
96%
of
atmosphere
▪ Allows
orange
wavelengths
of
solar
energy
to
get
through
but
blocks
escape
of
heat
▪ Planet
too
hot
to
support
life
▪ Above
surface,
temp
decreases
▪ Very
little
water
vapor
▪ Instead,
clouds
made
of
sulfuric
acid
▪ In
1970s,
Soviet
Union
sent
six
Venera
probes
to
explore
surface
▪ Survived
heat
and
pressure
long
enough
to
transmit
surface
images
▪ Showed
smooth
plain,
with
some
mountains
and
valleys
▪ Other
instruments
showed
surface
made
of
basalt
and
granite
▪ These
commonly
found
on
earth
▪ Between
1990
and
1992,
Magellan
orbiter
made
radar
images
of
most
of
Venusian
surface
▪ Domes,
mountains,
volcanoes
and
lava
plains
are
most
common
Earth
▪ 3rd
planet
from
sun
▪ Orbit
period
=
365.24
days
▪ 1
rotation
=
23
hours
56
minutes
▪ 5th
largest
planet
▪ 1
moon
▪ Very
active
geologic
history
▪ Over
last
250
million
years,
continents
separated
from
single
landmass
and
drifted
to
present
positions
▪ Weathering
and
erosion
changed
and
continue
to
change
surface
▪ Life
possible
b/c
of
distance
from
sun
▪ Temp
warm
enough
for
water
to
exist
as
liquid
▪ Mercury
and
Venus
don’t
have
liquid
water
▪ Mars
and
outer
planets
too
far
away
(ice)
▪ Only
planet
in
solar
system
known
to
have
oceans
of
liquid
water
▪ Geologists
think
that
as
oceans
formed
on
earth,
water
combined
with
CO2
in
atmosphere
▪ Since
CO2
didn’t
build
up
in
atmosphere,
solar
heat
able
to
escape
▪ Life
was
able
to
form
Mars
▪ 4th
planet
from
sun
▪ Orbit
period
=
687
days
▪ Rotation
=
24
hours
37
minutes
▪ Has
seasons
like
earth’s
b/c
of
tilt
of
axis
▪ Has
2
moons
▪ Large
surface
areas
covered
with
lava
▪ Volcanoes
on
Mars
are
largest
in
solar
system
▪ Largest
–
Olympus
Mons
▪ 3
times
higher
than
Mt.
Everest
▪ Deep
canyons
also
cover
surface
▪ Largest
–
Valles
Marineris
▪ As
long
as
US
–
4,500
km
▪ Fault
zones
may
have
formed
them
▪ Atmospheric
pressure
and
temperature
too
low
for
water
to
exist
as
liquid
▪ Spacecraft
Viking
1
and
Viking
2
found
evidence
of
erosion
by
water
▪ Also
recent
Pathfinder
mission
showed
images
of
large
flood
plain
▪ Assume
Mars
used
to
have
warmer
and
wetter
climate
▪ Temp
near
equator
about
20℃ during
summer
▪ Near poles about -‐130℃
▪ A little water remains trapped in polar ice
caps
The
Outer
Planets
Section
3
▪ Outer
planets
–
Jupiter,
Saturn,
Uranus,
Neptune,
Pluto
▪ 1st
4
are
called
gas
giants
–
largest
planets
in
solar
system
▪ Also
called
Jovian
planets
b/c
they
are
similar
to
Jupiter
▪ Less
dense
than
inner
planets
▪ Mostly
hydrogen
and
helium
atmosphere
▪ Rock,
metals
and
water
at
core
Jupiter
▪ 5th
planet
from
sun
▪ Largest
planet
in
solar
system
▪ Mass
is
twice
all
8
other
planets
combined
▪ Orbit
period
=
12
years
▪ Rotation
every
9
hours
50
minutes
▪ Has
at
least
17
moons
and
4
rings
▪ May
or
may
not
have
solid,
rocky
core
(don’t
know)
▪ Large
mass
causes
pressure
and
temp
in
interior
much
more
than
earth
▪ Temps
at
interior
as
high
as
30,000℃
▪ Changed much of interior to sea of liquid
metallic hydrogen
▪ Electric currents may be source of huge
magnetic field
▪ Made
mainly
of
H
and
He
–
92%
▪ Makes
composition
of
Jupiter
similar
to
sun
▪ Surface
not
solid
–
mixture
of
hot
gases
and
liquids
▪ Formed
about
4.6
billion
years
ago
▪ Not
enough
mass
to
start
nuclear
fusion
▪ So
it
never
became
a
star
▪ Surface
unique
b/c
of
alternating
light
and
dark
cloud
bands
▪ Orange,
gray,
blue
and
white
bands
spread
out
parallel
to
equator
▪ Colors
suggest
presence
of
ammonia,
methane,
and
water
vapor
▪ Scientists
think
quick
rotation
causes
gases
to
swirl
around
planet
–
forms
bands
▪ Average
temp
of
atmospheric
layers
=
-‐160℃
▪ Lower layers about 20℃
▪ Also lightning and thunderstorms
The
Great
Red
Spot
▪ Distinguishing
feature
of
Jupiter
▪ Astronomers
think
heated
material
rising
to
surface
from
interior
causes
it
▪ Giant
rotating
storm
(like
hurricane)
▪ Been
for
several
hundred
years
or
more
▪ Galileo
spacecraft
data
(1995)
showed
Jupiter
has
wind
speed
up
to
540
km/hr
Saturn
▪ 6th
planet
from
sun
▪ Over
½
billion
km
farther
from
sun
than
Jupiter
▪ 2nd
largest
planet
in
solar
system
▪ Average
temp
=
-‐176℃
▪ Has at least 18 moons and several rings
▪ Spins
rapidly
▪ Rotates
every
10
hours
30
minutes
▪ Rotation
of
Saturn
and
Jupiter
causes
it
to
bulge
at
equator
and
flatten
at
poles
▪ Also
has
bands
of
colored
clouds
parallel
to
equator
▪ Same
interior
as
Jupiter
▪ Saturn
differs
from
Jupiter
in
3
ways
1. Saturn
much
less
dense
than
Jupiter
1. Least
dense
planet
in
solar
system
2. Density
less
than
water
2. Orbit
period
=
29.5
years
1. Almost
20
years
longer
than
Jupiter
3. Has
much
more
complex
system
of
rings
Uranus
▪ 7th
planet
from
sun
▪ 3rd
largest
▪ Discovered
in
1781
▪ 1st
planet
to
be
discovered
since
ancient
times
▪ Nearly
3
billion
km
from
sun
▪ Hard
to
study
▪ Has
at
least
20
moons
▪ At
least
11
small
rings
▪ Orbit
period
=
84
years
▪ Most
unique
feature
–
rotates
like
rolling
ball
!
▪ Axis
almost
horizontal
to
plane
of
orbit
!
▪ Rotation
rate
not
discovered
until
1986
!
▪ Voyager
2
passed
by
!
▪ Rotates
once
every
17
hours
▪ Greenish
color
indicates
atmosphere
contains
methane
▪ Atmosphere
contains
mainly
H
and
He
▪ Average
cloud-‐top
temp
=
-‐214℃
▪ Astronomers think temp much higher below
clouds
▪ Core might be rock and metals with temp
about 7000℃
Neptune
▪ 8th
planet
from
sun
▪ Similar
to
Uranus
in
size
and
mass
▪ Orbit
period
=
164
years
▪ Rotates
every
16
hours
▪ Has
8
moons
▪ Possibly
4
rings
▪ Existence
of
Neptune
predicted
before
it
was
discovered
▪ Astronomers
noticed
variations
of
Uranus’s
orbit
from
expected
orbit
▪ Suspected
gravity
of
unknown
planet
behind
Uranus
might
be
responsible
▪ Mid
1800s
scientists
calculated
possibility
of
planet
beyond
Uranus
▪ 3
years
later
Johann
Galle
discovered
bluish-‐
green
disk
where
one
scientist
predicted
–
4.5
billion
km
from
sun
▪ Named
Neptune
after
Roman
god
of
the
sea
▪ Data
from
Voyager
2
showed
atmosphere
mainly
H,
He
and
methane
▪ Upper
atmosphere
has
white
clouds
of
frozen
methane
▪ Images
from
Voyager
also
show
Neptune
has
active
weather
system
▪ Solar
system’s
strongest
winds
–
1000
km/hr
▪ Has
earth-‐sized
storm
–
The
Great
Dark
Spot
▪ Average
surface
temp
about
-‐225℃
Pluto
▪ No
longer
a
planet
▪ Now
called
a
dwarf
planet
–
more
than
40
of
them
in
solar
system
▪ A
planet
is
an
object
that
orbits
the
sun
and
is
large
enough
to
have
become
round
due
to
the
force
of
its
own
gravity
▪ A
planet
has
to
dominate
the
neighborhood
around
its
orbit
▪ Pluto
has
been
demoted
because
it
does
not
dominate
its
neighborhood
!
▪ Charon,
its
large
"moon,"
is
only
about
half
the
size
of
Pluto,
while
all
the
true
planets
are
far
larger
than
their
moons.
Asteroids,
Comets
and
Meteoroids
Section
4
▪ Solar
system
includes
millions
of
smaller
bodies
of
matter
than
planets
▪ Some
are
just
bits
of
dust
or
ice
floating
in
space
▪ Others
as
big
as
moons
▪ Left
over
from
nebula
that
formed
solar
system
Asteroids
▪ Largest
of
smaller
bodies
in
solar
system
▪ Fragments
of
rock
that
orbit
sun
▪ Astronomers
have
seen
more
than
50,000
▪ Millions
may
exist
in
solar
system
▪ Orbits
are
mostly
ellipses
(like
planets)
▪ Largest
known
asteroid
is
Ceres
(1,000
km
diameter)
▪ Most
exist
in
area
between
orbits
of
Mars
and
Jupiter
▪ Asteroid
belt
▪ Begins
100
million
km
beyond
orbit
of
Mars
▪ Stretches
for
about
150
million
km
toward
Jupiter
▪ Asteroids
usually
classified
into
3
types
depending
on
composition
1. Mostly
carbon
materials
–
dark
appearance
2. Mostly
iron/nickel
–
metallic
appearance
3. Mostly
silicate
materials
–
look
like
earth
rocks
(most
common)
▪ Many
astronomers
think
asteroids
in
asteroid
belt
are
remains
of
planetesimals
not
able
to
form
planet
b/c
of
gravity
from
Jupiter
▪ Composition
of
asteroids
is
same
materials
as
planets
▪ Ex.
Iron
common
in
cores,
silicate
minerals
common
in
crusts
▪ Some
asteroids
–
Trojan
asteroids
and
earth-‐
grazers
–
orbit
sun
▪ Not
in
asteroid
belt
▪ Trojan
asteroids
concentrated
in
groups
just
ahead
and
behind
planet
Jupiter
▪ Earth-‐grazers
have
elongated
elliptical
orbits
▪ Sometimes
bring
them
very
close
to
sun
and
earth
▪ Do
sometimes
collide
with
earth
Comets
▪ Orbit
sun
in
long
ellipses
▪ Body
of
rock,
dust,
methane,
ammonia,
ice
▪ Core
(nucleus)
made
of
rock,
metals
and
ice
▪ Usually
1
km
–
100
km
diameter
▪ Coma
à spherical
cloud
of
gas
and
dust
surrounding
the
nucleus
▪ Tail
is
gas
and
dust
that
streams
from
head
(nucleus
and
coma)
▪ Forms
as
sunlight
and
solar
wind
pushes
gas
and
dust
away
from
head
▪ Whatever
direction
comet
travels,
tail
always
points
away
from
sun
▪ Some
larger
comets
have
tails
more
than
80
million
km
long
▪ Astronomers
think
most
comets
start
in
Oort
cloud
–
spherical
cloud
of
dust
and
ice
that
contains
nuclei
of
as
many
as
a
trillion
comets
▪ Bodies
in
cloud
circle
sun
at
140
m/s
▪ Takes
a
few
million
years
to
complete
1
orbit
▪ Cloud
surrounds
solar
system
▪ Starts
1
light
year
from
sun
▪ Reaches
halfway
to
nearest
star
▪ Matter
may
have
been
left
over
from
formation
of
solar
system
▪ Gravity
of
star
passing
near
solar
system
may
cause
comet
in
cloud
to
fall
into
long
elliptical
orbit
▪ Orbit
stretches
from
Oort
cloud
to
sun
and
back
to
cloud
▪ Some
long-‐period
comets
have
periods
of
several
thousand
or
several
million
years
!
▪ Short-‐period
comets
have
periods
up
to
100
years
▪ Gravity
of
outer
planets
can
affect
comets
as
they
orbit
sun
Meteoroids
▪ Smaller
bits
of
rock
or
metal
▪ Most
less
than
1
mm
diameter
▪ Pieces
of
matter
detached
from
passing
comets
▪ Larger
meteoroids
–
1
cm
–
made
by
collisions
between
asteroids
▪ If
meteoroid
passes
through
earth’s
atmosphere,
air
pressure
heats
it
and
slows
it
down
▪ Most
burn
up
in
atmosphere
before
reaching
surface
▪ Make
bright
streak
of
light
à meteor
▪ “shooting
star”
▪ Meteoroids
sometimes
vaporize
quickly
in
brilliant
flash
of
light
-‐
fireball
▪ Sometimes
large
number
of
small
meteoroids
enter
in
short
period
of
time
▪ Meteor
shower
à lots
of
meteoroids
burning
up
▪ Occur
at
same
time
each
year
when
earth
intersects
orbits
of
comets
that
left
trail
of
meteoroids
▪ Astronomers
estimate
1
million
kg
matter
from
meteoroids
falls
to
earth
every
day
▪ Millions
of
meteoroids
enter
earth’s
atmosphere
each
day
▪ Few
do
not
burn
up
entirely
and
fall
to
earth
▪ Meteorite
à meteoroid
or
any
part
left
after
it
hits
earth
▪ Most
are
small
(mass
less
than
1
kg)
▪ Meteor
Crater
in
Arizona
▪ Created
by
meteoroid
that
hit
earth
about
20,000
years
ago
▪ Meteor
was
50
m
in
diameter
▪ Weight
500,000
tons
▪ Left
crater
1.3
km
diameter,
180
m
deep
▪ Meteorites
can
be
classified
into
3
basic
types
1. Stony
2. Iron
3. Stony-‐iron
Stony
Meteorites
▪ Similar
in
composition
to
rocks
on
earth
!
▪ Contain
carbon
substances
similar
to
materials
in
living
things
Iron
Meteorites
▪ Easier
to
find
▪ Stony
meteorites
look
like
earth
rocks
▪ Often
not
noticed
▪ Iron
meteorites
have
distinct
metallic
appearance
Stony-‐Iron
Meteorites
▪ Contain
both
iron
and
stone
▪ Very
rare
▪ Almost
all
meteorites
probably
come
from
collisions
between
asteroids
▪ Oldest
meteoroids
are
about
100
million
years
older
than
earth
or
moon
▪ Meteorites
can
give
information
about
makeup
of
solar
nebula
that
existed
before
earth
and
moon
formed