UNIT III

Stack and Queue

There are certain situations in computer science that one wants to restrict insertions and
deletions so that they can take place only at the beginning or the end of the list, not in the
middle. Two of such data structures that are useful are:
❖ Stack.
❖ Queue.
Linear lists and arrays allow one to insert and delete elements at any place in the list i.e., at
the beginning, at the end or in the middle.

STACK:
A stack is a list of elements in which an element may be inserted or deleted only at one
end, called the top of the stack. Stacks are sometimes known as LIFO (last in, first
out) lists.
As the items can be added or removed only from the top i.e. the last item to be
added to a stack is the first item to be removed.
The three basic operations associated with stacks are:

❖ Push: is the term used to insert an element into a stack.

❖ Pop: is the term used to delete an element from a stack.
❖ Top: is the term used to return the top most element of a stack.
❖ Display: is used to display the data elements of a stack.

“Push” is the term used to insert an element into a stack. “Pop” is the term used to delete
an element from the stack.

All insertions and deletions take place at the same end, so the last element added to
the stack will be the first element removed from the stack. When a stack is created, the
stack base remains fixed while the stack top changes as elements are added and removed.
The most accessible element is the top and the least accessible element is the bottom of the
stack.

Representation of Stack:
Let us consider a stack with 6 elements capacity. This is called as the size of the
stack. The number of elements to be added should not exceed the maximum size of the
stack. If we attempt to add new element beyond the maximum size, we will encounter a
stack overflow condition. Similarly, you cannot remove elements beyond the base of the
stack. If such is the case, we will reach a stack underflow condition.
When an element is added to a stack, the operation is performed by push(). Figure 2.1
shows the creation of a stack and addition of elements using push().
 Figure:Push operations on stack

When an element is taken off from the stack, the operation is performed by pop(). Figure
shows a stack initially with three elements and shows the deletion of elements using pop().

Fugure:Pop operations on stack

Linked List Implementation of Stack:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

struct node
{
int data;
struct node *next;
};

struct node *top = NULL;

/* Function declarations */
void push();
void pop();
void display();

int main()
{
int choice;

do
{
printf("\n******** STACK USING LINKED LIST ********");
printf("\n1. PUSH");
printf("\n2. POP");
printf("\n3. DISPLAY");
printf("\n4. EXIT");
printf("\nEnter your choice: ");
scanf("%d", &choice);

switch (choice)
{
case 1:
push();
break;

case 2:
pop();
break;

case 3:
display();
break;

case 4:
printf("Exiting program...\n");
break;

default:
printf("Invalid choice!\n");
}
} while (choice != 4);

return 0;
}
/* PUSH operation */
void push()
{
struct node *new;
int ele;

new = (struct node*)malloc(sizeof(struct node));

if (new == NULL)
{
printf("Memory allocation failed!\n");
return;
}

printf("Enter element to push: ");

scanf("%d", &ele);

new->data = ele;
new->next = top;
top = new;

printf("%d pushed into stack\n", ele);

}

/* POP operation */
void pop()
{
struct node *temp;

if (top == NULL)
{
printf("STACK IS EMPTY\n");
}
else
{
temp = top;
printf("%d is popped from stack\n", top->data);
top = top->next;
temp->next = NULL;
free(temp);
}
}
/* DISPLAY operation */
void display()
{
struct node *temp;

if (top == NULL)
{
printf("STACK IS EMPTY\n");
}
else
{
temp = top;
printf("Stack elements are:\n");
while (temp != NULL)
{
printf("%d\n", temp->data);
temp = temp->next;
}
}
}

Applications of stacks:
1. Stack is used by compilers to check for balancing of parentheses, brackets
and braces.
2. Stack is used to evaluate a postfix expression.
3. Stack is used to convert an infix expression into postfix/prefix form.
4. In recursion, all intermediate arguments and return values are stored on the
processor’s stack.
5. During a function call the return address and arguments are pushed onto a
stack and on return they are popped off.

Polish Notation:
An algebraic expression is a legal combination of operators and operands. Operand is
the quantity on which a mathematical operation is performed. Operand may be a
variable like x, y, z or a constant like 5, 4, 6 etc. Operator is a symbol which signifies a
mathematical or logical operation between the operands. Examples of familiar
operators include +, -, *, /, ^ etc.
An algebraic expression can be represented using three different notations. They are
infix, postfix and prefix notations:

Infix: It is the form of an arithmetic expression in which we fix (place) the

arithmetic operator in between the two operands.
Example: (A + B) * (C - D)
Prefix: It is the form of an arithmetic notation in which we fix (place) the arithmetic
operator before (pre) its two operands. The prefix notation is called as
polish notation (due to the polish mathematician Jan Lukasiewicz in the
year 1920).
Example: * + A B – C D
Postfix: It is the form of an arithmetic expression in which we fix (place) the
arithmetic operator after (post) its two operands. The postfix notation is
called as suffix notation and is also referred to reverse polish notation.
Example: A B + C D - *
The three important features of postfix expression are:
1. The operands maintain the same order as in the equivalent infix expression.
2. The parentheses are not needed to designate the expression unambiguously.
3. While evaluating the postfix expression the priority of the operators is no
longer relevant.
We consider five binary operations: +, -, *, / and $ or ↑ (exponentiation). For these
binary operations, the following in the order of precedence (highest to lowest):

Converting expressions using Stack:

Let us convert the expressions from one type to another. These can be done as follows:
1. Infix to postfix
2. Infix to prefix

Conversion from infix to postfix:

Procedure to convert from infix expression to postfix expression is as follows:
1. Scan the infix expression from left to right.
2. a) If the scanned symbol is left parenthesis, push it onto the stack.
b) If the scanned symbol is an operand, then place directly in the postfix
expression (output).
C)If the symbol scanned is a right parenthesis, then go on popping all
the items from the stack and place them in the postfix expression till
we get the matching left parenthesis.
d) If the scanned symbol is an operator, then go on removing all the
operators from the stack and place them in the postfix expression, if
and only if the precedence of the operator which is on the top of the
stack is greater than (or greater than or equal) to the precedence of
the scanned operator and push the scanned operator onto the stack
otherwise, push the scanned operator onto the stack.
Example 1:
Convert ((A – (B + C)) * D) ↑ (E + F) infix expression to postfix form:

Example 2:.
Program to convert an infix to postfix expression:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
#include<string.h>
#define MAX 100
char stack[MAX];
int top=-1;
void push(char stack[],char);
char pop(char stack[]);
voidInfixtoPostfix(char source[],char target[]);
intgetPriority(char);
void main()
{
char infix[100],postfix[100];
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter any infix expression : ");
gets(infix);
strcpy(postfix,"");
InfixtoPostfix(infix,postfix);
printf("\n The corresponding postfix expression is : ");
puts(postfix);
getch();
}
void InfixtoPostfix(char source[],char target[])
{
int i=0,j=0;
strcpy(target,"");
while(source[i]!='\0')
{
if(source[i]=='(')
{
push(stack,source[i]);
i++;
}
else if(source[i]==')')
{
while((top!=-1) && (stack[top]!='('))
 {
target[j]=pop(stack);
j++;
}
if(top==-1)
{
printf("\n Incorrect Expression ");
return;
}
pop(stack); // Remove left parenthesis
i++;
}
else if(isdigit(source[i]) || isalpha(source[i]))
{
target[j]=source[i];
j++;
i++;
}
else if(source[i]=='+' || source[i]=='-'|| source[i]=='*'|| source[i]=='/'|| source[i]=='%')
{
while((top!=-1) && (stack[top]!='(') && (getPriority(stack[top]) >= getPriority(source[i])))
{
target[j]=pop(stack);
j++;
}
push(stack,source[i]);
i++;
}
else
{
printf("\n Incorrect element in expression ");
exit(1);
}
}
while((top!=-1) && (stack[top]!='('))
{
target[j]=pop(stack);
j++;
}
target[j]='\0';
}
intgetPriority(char op)
{
if(op=='/' || op=='*' ||op=='%')
return 1;
else if(op=='+' || op=='-')
return 0;
else
return -1;
}
void push(char stack[],char value)
{
if(top==MAX-1)
printf("\n stack overflow");
else
{
top=top+1;
stack[top]=value;
}
}
char pop(char stack[])
{
char value=' ';
if(top==-1)
printf("\n Stack Underflow");
else
{
value=stack[top];
top=top-1;
}
return value;
}

Evaluation of postfix expression:

The postfix expression is evaluated easily by the use of a stack. When a number is
seen, it is pushed onto the stack; when an operator is seen, the operator is applied to
the two numbers that are popped from the stack and the result is pushed onto the
stack. When an expression is given in postfix notation, there is no need to know any
precedence rules; this is our obvious advantage.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
#define MAX 100
float stack[MAX];
int top=-1;
void push(float stack[],float value);
float pop(float stack[]);
floatevaluatePostfixExp(char exp[]);
void main()
{
float value;
charexp[100];
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter any postfix expression : ");
gets(exp);
value=evaluatePostfixExp(exp);
printf("\n Value of the postfix expression = %.2f",value);
getch();
}

floatevaluatePostfixExp(char exp[])
{
int i=0;
float op1, op2,
value;
while(exp[i]!='\0')
{
if(isdigit(exp[i]))
push (stack, (float)(exp[i]-'0'));
else
{
op2=pop(stack);
op1=pop(stack);
switch(exp[i])
{
 case '+' :
value=op1+op2;
break;
case '-' :
value=op1-op2;
break;
case '*' :
value=op1*op2;
break;
case '/' :
value=op1/op2;
break;
case '%' :
value=(int)op1%(int)op2;
break;
}
push(stack,value);
}
i++;
}
return (pop(stack));
}
void push (float stack [], float value)
{
if(top==MAX-1)
printf("\n Stack overflow");
else
{
top=top+1;
stack[top]=value;
}
}
float pop (float stack [])
{
float value=-1;
if(top==-1)
printf("\n Stack underflow");
else
{
value=stack[top];
top=top-1;
}
 return value;
}

Function Call and Recursion

Function Call
Definition
A function call is a statement that transfers program control to a function. The called function performs a specific
task and may return a value to the calling function.
Why Functions are Used?
❖ To divide a large program into smaller modules
❖ Improves readability and reusability
❖ Makes debugging and testing easier
❖ Supports structured programming

Types of Function Calls

1. Call by Value
❖ A copy of actual arguments is passed
❖ Changes inside function do not affect original variables
2. Call by Reference
❖ Address of variables is passed
❖ Changes inside function affect original variables

General Syntax of Function Call

return_type function_name(parameters);
Example: sum = add(a, b);

Example 1: Call by Value

Program: Add Two Numbers
#include <stdio.h>

int add(int x, int y)

{
return x + y;
}

int main()
{
int a = 5, b = 3, result;
result = add(a, b);
printf("Sum = %d", result);
return 0;
}
Execution Flow
Example 1: Factorial Using Recursion
Mathematical Form:
n! = n × (n-1)!
0! = 1 ← base condition
Program:
#include <stdio.h>

int factorial(int n)
{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * factorial(n - 1);
}

int main()
{
int num = 5;
printf("Factorial = %d", factorial(num));
return 0;
}

Function Calls:
factorial(5)
→ 5 * factorial(4)
→ 5 * 4 * factorial(3)
→ ...
→5*4*3*2*1

Example 2: Fibonacci Series Using Recursion

Program:
#include <stdio.h>

int fib(int n)
{
if (n == 0)
return 0;
else if (n == 1)
return 1;
else
return fib(n - 1) + fib(n - 2);
}

int main()
front. Another name for a queue is a

“FIFO” or “First-in-first-out” list.

The operations for a queue are analogues to those for a stack, the difference is that
the insertions go at the end of the list, rather than the beginning. We shall use the
following operations on queues:
• enqueue: which inserts an element at the end of the queue.

• dequeue: which deletes an element at the start of the queue.

Representation of Queue:
Let us consider a queue, which can hold maximum of five elements. Initially the
queue is empty.

Now, insert 11 to the queue. Then queue status will be:

Next, insert 22 to the queue. Then the queue status is:

Again insert another element 33 to the queue. The status of the queue is:

Now, delete an element. The element deleted is the element at the front of the
queue. So the status of the queue is:
h>
#include<coni
o.h> #define
MAX 10 int
queue[MAX];
int front=-1,rear=-
1; void
insert_element();
int
delete_element();
void display();
void main()
{
intoption,value;
clrscr();
do
{
printf("\n ****** MAIN MENU
*******"); printf("\n\t 1. Insert an
Element "); printf("\n\t 2. Delete an
Element "); printf("\n\t 3. Display the
queue"); printf("\n\t 4. Exit ");
printf("\n \n Enter your option
:"); scanf("%d",&option);
switch(option)
{case 1:

case 2:
break;
case 3:
display();
break;
}
}while(option!=4);
getch();
}
voidinsert_element()
{
intnum;
printf("\n Enter the number to be inserted in the queue : ");
scanf("%d",&num);
if(rear==MAX-1)
printf("\n OVERFLOW ");
else if(front==-1 && rear==-1)
 front=rear=0;
else
rear++;
queue[rear]=num;
}
intdelete_element()
{
int value;
if(front==-1 || front>rear)
{
printf("\n UNDERFLOW");
return -1;
}
else
{
value=queue[front];
front++;
if(front>rear)
front=rear=-1;
 return value;
}
}
void display()
{
int i;
if(front==-1 || front>rear)
printf("\n Queue is Empty");
else
{
for(i=0;i<=rear;i++)
printf("\t %d",queue[i]);
}
}

Linked List Implementation of Queue:

We can represent a queue as a linked list. In a queue data is deleted from the front end
and inserted at the rear end. We can perform similar operations on the two ends of a
list. We use two pointers front and rear for our linked queue implementation.
The linked queue looks as shown below.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<malloc.h>
struct node
{
int data;
struct node *next;
};
struct queue
{
struct node *front;
struct node *rear;
};
struct queue *q;
voidcreate_queue(struct queue*);
struct queue *insert_element(struct queue*,int);
struct queue *delete_element(struct queue*);
struct queue *display(struct queue*);
void main()
{
intval,option;
create_queue(q);
clrscr();
do
{
printf("\n ****** MAIN MENU *******");
printf("\n\t 1. Insert an Element ");
printf("\n\t 2. Delete an Element ");
printf("\n\t 3. Display the queue");
printf("\n\t 4. Exit ");
printf("\n \n Enter your option :");
scanf("%d",&option);
switch(option)
{
case 1:
printf("\n Enter the number to insert in the queue : ");
scanf("%d",&val);
q=insert_element(q,val);
break;
case 2:
q=delete_element(q);
break;
case 3:
q=display(q);
break;
}
}while(option!=4);
getch();
}
voidcreate_queue(struct queue *q)
{
q->rear=NULL;
q->front=NULL;
}
struct queue *insert_element(struct queue *q,intval)
{
 struct node *ptr;
ptr=(struct node*)malloc(sizeof(struct node));
ptr->data=val;
if(q->front==NULL)
{
q->front=ptr;
q->rear=ptr;
q->front->next=q->rear->next=NULL;
}
else
{
q->rear->next=ptr;
q->rear=ptr;
q->rear->next=NULL;
}
return q;
}
struct queue *display(struct queue *q)
{
struct node *ptr;
ptr=q->front;
if(ptr==NULL)
printf("\n Queue is empty ");
else
{
while(ptr!=q->rear)
{
printf("\t %d",ptr->data);
ptr=ptr->next;
}
printf("\t %d",ptr->data);
}
return q;
}
struct queue *delete_element(struct queue *q)
{
struct node *ptr;
ptr=q->front;
if(q->front==NULL)
printf("\n Underflow");
else
{
 q->front=q->front->next;
printf("\n The value being deleted is : %d ",ptr->data);
free(ptr);
}
return q;
}

Applications of Queue:
1. It is used to schedule the jobs to be processed by the CPU.
2. When multiple users send print jobs to a printer, each printing job is kept in
the printing queue. Then the printer prints those jobs according to first in
first out (FIFO) basis.
3. Breadth first search uses a queue data structure to find an element from a
graph.

Circular Queue:
A more efficient queue representation is obtained by regarding the array Q[MAX] as
circular. Any number of items could be placed on the queue. This implementation of a
queue is called a circular queue because it uses its storage array as if it were a circle
instead of a linear list.
There are two problems associated with linear queue. They are:
• Time consuming: linear time to be spent in shifting the elements to the
beginning of the queue.
• Signaling queue full: even if the queue is having vacant position.
For example, let us consider a linear queue status as follows:

Next insert another element, say 66 to the queue. We cannot insert 66 to the queue as
the rear crossed the maximum size of the queue (i.e., 5). There will be queue full
signal. The queue status is as follows:
This difficulty can be overcome if we treat queue position with index zero as a position
that comes after position with index four then we treat the queue as a circular queue.
In circular queue if we reach the end for inserting elements to it, it is possible to insert
new elements if the slots at the beginning of the circular queue are empty.

Representation of Circular Queue:

Let us consider a circular queue, which can hold maximum (MAX) of six elements.
Initially the queue is empty.

Now, insert 11 to the circular queue. Then circular queue status will be:

Insert new elements 22, 33, 44 and 55 into the circular queue. The circular queue
status is:

Now, delete an element. The element deleted is the element at the front of the circular
queue. So, 11 is deleted. The circular queue status is as follows:

Again, delete an element. The element to be deleted is always pointed to by the FRONT
pointer. So, 22 is deleted. The circular queue status is as follows:
Again, insert another element 66 to the circular queue. The status of the circular queue
is:

Now, insert new elements 77 and 88 into the circular queue. The circular queue status
is:
Now, if we insert an element to the circular queue, as COUNT = MAX we cannot add
the element to circular queue. So, the circular queue is full.

Source code for Circular Queue operations, using array:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define MAX 10
int queue[MAX];
int front=-1,rear=-1;
void insert_element();
int delete_element();
void display();
void main()
{
intoption,value;
clrscr();
do
{
printf("\n ****** MAIN MENU *******");
printf("\n\t 1. Insert an Element ");
printf("\n\t 2. Delete an Element ");
printf("\n\t 3. Display the queue");
printf("\n\t 4. Exit ");
printf("\n \n Enter your option :");
scanf("%d",&option);
switch(option)
{
case 1:
insert_element();
 break;
case 2:
value=delete_element();
if(value!=-1)
printf("\n %d data element deleted from the queue ",value);
break;
case 3:
display();
break;
}
}while(option!=4);
getch();
}
Void insert_element()
{
intnum;
printf("\n Enter the number to be inserted in the queue : ");
scanf("%d",&num);
if(front==-1 && rear ==MAX-1)
printf("\n OVERFLOW ");
else if(front==-1 && rear==-1)
{
front=rear=0;
queue[rear]=num;
}
else if(rear==MAX-1 && front!=0)
{
rear=0;
queue[rear]=num;
}
else
{
rear++;
queue[rear]=num;
}
}
Int delete_element()
{
int value;
if(front==-1 || rear==-1)
{
printf("\n UNDERFLOW");
 return -1;
}
value=queue[front];
if(front==rear)
front=rear=-1;
else
{
if(front==MAX-1)
front=0;
else
front++;
}
return value;
}
void display()
{
int i;
if(front==-1 || rear==-1)
printf("\n Queue is Empty");
else
{
if(front<rear)
{
for(i=front;i<=rear;i++)
printf("\t %d",queue[i]);
}
else
{
for(i=front;i<MAX;i++)
printf("\t %d",queue[i]);
for(i=0;i<=rear;i++)
printf("\t %d",queue[i]);

}
}
}

Deque:
In the preceding section we saw that a queue in which we insert items at one end and
from which we remove items at the other end. In this section we examine an extension
of the queue, which provides a means to insert and remove items at both ends of the
queue. This data structure is a deque. The word deque is an acronym derived from
double-ended queue. The following figure shows the representation of a deque.
 Representation of a deque

A deque provides four operations. Figure 4.6 shows the basic operations on a deque.
• enqueue_front: insert an element at front.
• dequeue_front: delete an element at front.
• enqueue_rear: insert element at rear.
• dequeue_rear: delete element at rear.

Basic operations on deque

There are two variations of deque. They are:

• Input restricted deque (IRD)
• Output restricted deque (ORD)
An Input restricted deque is a deque, which allows insertions at one end but allows
deletions at both ends of the list.
An output restricted deque is a deque, which allows deletions at one end but allows
insertions at both ends of the list.
Priority Queue:
A priority queue is a collection of elements such that each element has been assigned a
priority and such that the order in which elements are deleted and processed comes
from the following rules:
1. An element of higher priority is processed before any element of lower priority.
2. two elements with same priority are processed according to the order in which they were added
to the queue.
A prototype of a priority queue is time sharing system: programs of high priority are processed
first, and programs with the same priority form a standard queue. An efficient implementation for
the Priority Queue is to use heap, which in turn can be used for sorting purpose called heap sort.

Simple implementation of a Max Priority Queue using a normal array.

#include <stdio.h>
#define SIZE 100
int pq[SIZE];
int count = 0;
// Insert element
void insert (int value)
{
if (count == SIZE)
{
printf("Priority Queue is full!\n");
return;
}
pq[count] = value;
count++;
printf("Inserted: %d\n", value);
}
// Delete highest priority element (Maximum)
void deleteMax()
{
if (count == 0)
{
printf("Priority Queue is empty!\n");
return;
}
int maxIndex = 0;
// Find maximum element
for (int i = 1; i < count; i++)
{
if (pq[i] > pq[maxIndex])
{
maxIndex = i;
}
}
printf("Deleted: %d\n", pq[maxIndex]);
// Shift elements left
for (int i = maxIndex; i < count - 1; i++)
{
pq[i] = pq[i + 1];
}
count--;
}
// Display elements
void display()
{
if (count == 0)
{
printf("Priority Queue is empty!\n");
return;
}

printf("Priority Queue elements: ");

for (int i = 0; i < count; i++)
{
printf("%d ", pq[i]);
}
printf("\n");
}

int main()
{
insert(10);
insert(50);
insert(20);
insert(40);

display();

deleteMax();
display();

return 0;
}

Output:
Inserted: 10
Inserted: 50
Inserted: 20
Inserted: 40
Priority Queue elements: 10 50 20 40
Deleted: 50
Priority Queue elements: 10 20 40

Double Ended Queue (Deque):

A Double Ended Queue (Deque) is a
linear data structure in which
insertion and deletion can be
performed at both ends (Front and
Rear).
It is more flexible than a simple queue.
Advantages of Deque:
1. Insertion and deletion allowed at both ends.
2. More flexible than a simple queue.
3. Can work as both stack and queue.
4. All operations take O(1) time.
5. Efficient for sliding window problems.

Disadvantages of Deque:
1. More complex than a simple queue.
2. Fixed size in array implementation.
3. Extra memory required in linked list implementation.
4. Needs careful handling of front and rear indexes.

Deque Program in C
#include <stdio.h>
#define SIZE 5
int arr[SIZE];
int front = -1;
int rear = -1;

/* Insert element at Rear */

void insertRear(int value)
{
if (rear == SIZE - 1)
{
printf("Deque is Full\n");
return;
}

if (front == -1)
front = 0;

rear++;
arr[rear] = value;
}

/* Delete element from Front */

void deleteFront()
{
if (front == -1 || front > rear)
{
printf("Deque is Empty\n");
return;
}
printf("Deleted: %d\n", arr[front]);
front++;
}
/* Display elements */
void display()
{
if (front == -1 || front > rear)
{
printf("Deque is Empty\n");
return;
}
printf("Deque Elements: ");
for (int i = front; i <= rear; i++)
{
printf("%d ", arr[i]);
}
printf("\n");
}

/* Main Function */
int main()
{
insertRear(10);
insertRear(20);
insertRear(30);

display();

deleteFront();

display();

return 0;
}

Output:
10 20 30
Deleted: 10
20 30