Chapter 2: Soil Mechanics and

Foundation Engineering
Prepared by ER. Raju Prasad Yadav.
2.1 Soil Properties and Laboratory Tests
• Soil is defined as an unconsolidated material composed of solid particles produced by
disintegration of rock.
• Father of soil mechanics: Dr. Karl Terzaghi
• Soil mechanics deals with the action of force on soil and flow of water through the soil.
• Soil is formed by weathering of rock due to mechanical disintegration or chemical
decomposition of rock.

Soil is an incidental material obtained from geologic cycle which goes on continuously in nature:

• Erosion
• Transportation
• Deposition
• Upheaval

Types of Soil
Residual soil: Soil that stays at the place of its formation.
Transported soil: Soil that had been deposited at a place away from its place of origin.

Types of Transported Soil

a) Alluvial soil (Water transported soil):

• Lacustrine deposit: Deposits made in lakes

• Marine deposit: Formed when flowing water carries soil to ocean or sea

b) Aeolian soil (Wind transported soil):

• Sand dune
• Loess: Silt deposit made by wind
c) Glacial soil (Glacier deposited soil):
• Drift: Deposit made by glacier
• Till: Deposit directly made by melting of ice
• Moraine: Ground formed after deposition of till
• Outwash: Soil carried by melting water from the front of a glacier

d) Talus (Gravity deposited soil):

 • Soil transported through short distances under the action of gravity

e) Peat Soil
Highly organic soil consisting of vegetable compounds.
Formed due to chemical weathering.

f) Coarse Grained Soil

Grain size ≤ 0.025 mm
More than 50% of soil grain passes through 0.025 mm IS sieve

g) Coarse Grained Soil (Alternate Definition)

Grain size > 0.025 mm
More than 50% of soil grain retained on 0.025 mm IS sieve

h) Fine Grained Soil

Grain size < 0.025 mm
More than 50% of soil grain passes through 0.025 mm IS sieve

Process of Soil Formation

A) Physical Disintegration
Disintegration of rocks due to: Flowing water, Flowing ice, Air abrasion, Thermal change,
Spreading of salt, Wedging action of ice, Gravitational force.

Coarse grained soils such as gravel and sand are formed.

Soil retains properties of parent rocks.
No change in chemical composition.

B) Chemical Decomposition
Decomposition due to: Hydration, Oxidation, Carbonation, Reduction, Solution, Hydrolysis.

Clayey soils are formed.

Mineral constituents are modified or changed from parent rocks.

Common Soil Nomenclature

Bentonite: Soil with high percentage of clay minerals (montmorillonite)

Black Cotton Soil: Residual soil with high percentage of clay minerals

Boulder: Rock fragments > 300 mm

Cobbles: Rock fragments 80 to 300 mm

Dispersive Clays: Clays that de flocculate in still water

Loam: Mixture of sand, silt, and clay

Loess: Wind-blown deposit of silt

Tuff: Fine-grained soil ejected from volcanoes and deposited by wind or water

Varved Clays: Sedimentary deposit consisting of alternate thin layers of silt and clay

Phase Diagram of Soil Mass

• Soil mass consists of solids and voids (air + water).

• Three-phase system: solid + air + water
• Two-phase system:

• Dry soil: voids filled with air

• Saturated soil: voids filled with water

Key Relationships:

• Volume: V = Vs + Vw + Va = Vs + Vv
• Weight: W = Ws + Ww
• Void Volume: Vv = Vw + Va

Transition Conditions:

• 3-phase becomes 2-phase when:

• Soil is absolutely dry

• Soil is fully saturated

Soil Classification

Cohesive Soil
- Soil in which absorbed water and particle attraction act practically at resting water content
- Formed due to chemical disintegration
- Examples: sandy soil, clay, silt clay
- Characteristics: fine-grained, low-strength, easily deformable

Cohesionless Soil
- Composed of bulky grains regardless of fineness
- Examples: rock flour, sand, gravel
- Formed due to physical disintegration
- Strength depends on friction between particles
C-Φ Soil
- Mixture of bulky grains and clay minerals
- Exhibits some degree of plasticity with varying water content

Geological Cycle of Soil Formation

- Weathering/Erosion → Transportation → Deposition → Upheaval/Tectonic activity

Basic Soil Properties and Their Relationships

• Void Ratio (e) = Vv / Vs

• Porosity (n) = Vv / V

• Water Content (w) = Ww / Ws

• Degree of Saturation (S) = Vw / Vv × 100%

• Air Content (a) = Va / V

• % of Air Voids (na) = (Va / V) × 100%

• For dry soil, S = 0%

• For completely saturated soil, S = 100%

• Bulk Density (γ) = W / V

• Saturated Unit Weight (γsat) = (G + e) / (1 + e) × γ_w

• Submerged Unit Weight (γsub) = γ_sat - γ_w

• Unit Weight of Water (γw) = 9.81 kN/m³

• Specific Gravity of Soil (G) = 2.6 to 2.8 (commonly 2.7)

Additional Relationships
• γ_d = γ / (1 + w)

• γ_sub = γ - γ_w (1 - n)

• Relative Density (Dr) = (emax - e) / (emax - emin)

• Vw = S × e × V / (1 + e)

• na = n × (1 - S)
 Porosity and Void Ratio Relationship

Formulas
n = e / (1 + e)

e = n / (1 - n)

Observations
• e for coarse grained soils: 0.3 to 1

• Clay soils can have void ratio > 1

Notes
Water content of soil can be greater than 100%.
Valid range of degree of saturation (S) is 0% to 100%.
Valid range for % of air voids (na) is ≥ 0%.
When S = 0%, the soil represents a two-phase system (soil and air).
When S = 100%, the soil represents a two-phase system (soil and water).
Highly plastic clays may have water content > 100%.
Atterberg limits are determined based on water content.
Optimum moisture content in compaction test is the water content at maximum dry density.

Engineering Properties of Soil

Permeability
Compressibility
Shear Strength

Index Properties of Soils

For coarse-grained soils: Particle size, Relative density
For fine-grained soils: Atterberg limits, Consistency

Mechanical Analysis
• Sieve Analysis: Method of separating soil into different fractions based on particle size.

• Results in a particle size distribution curve.

Sieve analysis for coarse-grained soils (e.g., > 75 microns)

Sedimentation analysis for fine-grained soils (e.g., < 75 microns)
Sieves have square openings

Wet Sieve Analysis

Used when soil contains more than 5% fines.
Performed using slurry and water jet.
4.75+ mm sieves for soil retained on 4.75 mm sieve.
4.75- mm sieves for soil passing 4.75 mm sieve.

Sieve Size (Retained on 4.75+ mm) Sieve Size (Passing 4.75 mm)
80 mm 2 mm
40 mm 1 mm
20 mm 600 microns
10 mm 425 µm
4.75 mm 212 µm
150 µm
75 µm

Sedimentation Analysis
Based on Stokes' Law.
Performed using a hydrometer.

Hydrometer Corrections:
a) Meniscus correction: Always positive
b) Temperature correction: Positive if > 27°C, negative if < 27°C
c) Dispersing agent correction (always negative)

Consistency Index (CI)

- Formula: CI = (CL - W) / PI

- Indicates consistency of soil

- CI = 0 → Liquid state (very soft)

- CI = 1 → Plastic state (very stiff)

- CI > 1 → Semi-solid or solid state

Activity Number (A)

- Formula: A = PI / % of clay fraction

- Indicates activity of clay minerals

Flow Index (FI)

- Describes rate at which soil loses shear strength with increasing water content

- Formula: FI = (W1 - W2)/log10(N2/N1)

Toughness Index (TI)

- Measures shear strength at plastic limit

- Formula: TI = PI / FI
Sensitivity (St)
- Indicates weakening due to remoulding

- Formula: Su = qu (undisturbed) / qu (remoulded)

Thixotropy
- Describes regain in strength of soil over time after remoulding

Determination Methods

Liquid Limit
- Determined by Casagrande method and also by Fall cone method or by Cone penetration
method

- Sample passed through 425 µm sieve

Plastic Limit
- Determined by rolling soil threads until they crack

Shrinkage Index (SI)

- Formula: SI = PI - SL

Soil Classification Systems

General Definition
- Grouping of soils based on similar behavior and properties

- Based on particle size and plasticity characteristics

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

- Total 15 groups

- Coarse-grained soils: >50% retained on 4.75 mm sieve

- Fine-grained soils: >50% passing 75 µm sieve

- 8 coarse-grained groups, 6 fine-grained groups, 1 peat group

Indian Soil Classification System

- Total 18 groups

- 8 coarse-grained

- 9 fine-grained
- 1 peat

Additional Notes
- Max % of fines in clean gravel: 5%

- Soil passing 4.75 mm sieve and retained on 75 µm with 7% fines → SP-SC

- Fine-grained soil with LL = 60%, PL = 20% is MH.

AASHTO Classification
- Used for road construction

- Formula: GI = 0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40) + 0.01(PI - 10)

- 8 groups: A-1 to A-8

2.2 Stresses on Soil and Seepage

Total Stress
Total stress is the stress carried by the soil mass and pore water due to applied load.

Formula:

σ = (H - Hₐ) × γ_d + Hₐ × γ_sat

Pore Water Pressure (Neutral Stress)

Pore water pressure is the pressure exerted by water within the pores of the soil.

Formula:

u = γ_w × Hₐ

Effective Stress
Effective stress is the stress due to the presence of actual soil mass. It is the difference between
total stress and pore water pressure.

Formula:

σ' = σ - u

Key Points:

- Effective stress is smaller than actual contact stress.

- It determines the engineering behavior of soil like compression and shear strength.
- Effective stress is a function of pore water pressure.

Notes on Effective Stress

- As the groundwater table lowers, the effective stress increases.
- Effective stress in a soil mass is independent of the depth of water above the soil surface.
- If the soil above the water table is saturated by capillary action, the pore water pressure above
the water table is negative, increasing effective stress.
- At the water table, pore water pressure is zero.
- Below the water table, pore water pressure is positive.
- Capillary water above the water table causes negative pressure, increasing effective stress
below saturation levels.
- Capillary action is equivalent to surcharge.
- Rise in water table causes a decrease in effective stress.
- Surcharge in the soil mass increases effective stress.

Effect of Steady Seepage on Effective Stress

- For downward seepage of water through soil, the effective stress increases compared to the
hydrostatic condition. The increase is equal to the seepage pressure.
- For upward seepage of water through soil, the effective stress decreases compared to the
hydrostatic condition. The decrease is equal to the seepage pressure.

Quick Sand Condition

The effective stress gets reduced due to the upward flow of water. When the head causing flow
is increased, a stage is reached at which effective stress is reduced to zero. This condition,
developed in coarse-grained soils, is called the quick sand condition.

For quick sand condition:

σ' = 0

Hydraulic gradient (i_c) = h / (γ'/γ_w)

Effective stress is zero at the critical hydraulic gradient.

Shear Strength of Soil

Shear strength (s) of soil is expressed as:

s = c' + σ' tan φ'

Where:
c' = cohesion

φ' = angle of internal friction

σ' = effective normal stress

when effective stress reduced to zero at critical hydraulic gradient then

➢ For cohesionless soil: s = 0

➢ For cohesive soil: s = c
• At the critical hydraulic gradient, cohesionless soil loses its shear strength entirely. This
condition is called quick sand condition (also known as boiling condition).
• Cohesive soil does not become quick at zero effective stress.
• Quick sand condition is most likely to occur in silty and fine sands.

Note: Quick sand is not a special type of soil; it is a hydraulic condition.

Critical Hydraulic Gradient

i_cr = (G - 1) / (1 + e)

Where G = specific gravity of soil solids, e = void ratio

Typical critical gradient for soil ≈ 1.0

Permeability
➢ Permeability is the property of soil which permits flow of water through it.
➢ It plays an important role in the design of earthen dams, canals, tubewells, etc.

Hydraulic Head: Difference in elevation of water levels at the entry and exit points in the soil
mass.

Hydraulic Gradient (i): Loss of head per unit length of flow through the soil.

i = Δh / L

Darcy’s Law
For laminar flow through saturated soil, the velocity of flow is directly proportional to the
hydraulic gradient.

V=K×i

Where:

V = velocity of flow
K = coefficient of permeability

i = hydraulic gradient

Discharge (Q) is given by:

Q=K×i×A

Where A = cross-sectional area of soil

Seepage velocity (Vs) is given by:

Vs = V / n

Where n = porosity

Validity of Darcy’s Law:

→ Soil mass is fully saturated

→ Flow is laminar
→ Size of soil grain < 3 mm
→ Reynolds number < 1
Re = V × D / ν

Determination of coefficient of Permeability

1) Laboratory Method
A) Constant Head Method:

Suitable for coarse-grained soils with relatively high flow rate.

K = (Q × L) / (A × h × t)

Where Q = volume of water, L = length of sample, A = cross-sectional area, h = head, t = time

B) Falling Head Method:

Suitable for fine-grained soils with relatively low flow rate.

K = (2.303 × a × L) / (A × t) × log10(h1 / h2)

Where a = area of standpipe, A = area of soil sample, L = length, h1 and h2 = initial and final
heads, t = time
2. Field Methods
A) Pumping Out Test:

Influences a large area around the pumping well and gives an overall value of the coefficient of
permeability.

B) Pumping In Test:

Influences a small area around the borehole and gives a local value of the coefficient of
permeability.

Factors affecting permeability:

K = Q. de C. D^2 Vw x es

D = D10

1) Grain size: K ∝D^2

0.01 < D10 < 0.03 (m)

2) Porosity of fluid: K ∝ Vw

Greater the viscosity of pore fluid, lower the permeability

3) Void ratio: K ∝ es
4) Degree of saturation: Directly proportional
5) Structure of soil mass:

Flocculated structure has more permeability than dispersed structure

6) Absorbed water: Inversely proportional

7) Temperature: Directly proportional

Seepage Analysis
Seepage: The flow of water under gravitational force in a permeable medium.

Flow line: The path taken by the water particle

Equipotential lines: Lines connecting points of equal total head
• They intersect flow lines at right angles
Flow net: Combination of flow lines and equipotential lines
Laplace equation for two-dimensional flow is used in constructing flow
nets
• The equation represents two families of orthogonal curves
• Graphical representation of Laplace equation is a flow net

Laplace Equation:

∂²h/∂x² + ∂²h/∂z² = 0

I) Discharge through Earth Mass

Q = K * H* Nf/Nd

where:

Nd = number of equipotential drops

Nf = shape factor (depends on geometry and boundary conditions)

ii) Seepage discharge through earthen dam:

Q=K*s

iii) According to USAR:

If K > 10⁻³ mm/sec → Soil is pervious

If K < 10⁻⁷ mm/sec → Soil is impervious
In between → Semi-pervious

Notes:
- For a sphere of 0.5 mm diameter, Specific surface S = 6/a = 6 / 0.5 = 12 mm⁻¹

• The phreatic line in a homogeneous dam is parabolic

• Pressure on a phreatic line is equal to atmospheric pressure

- A flow net can be used to determine:

• Seepage
• Uplift pressure
• Exit gradient

Compaction
Compaction is the process of increasing the shear strength and density of soil by reducing the air
voids (decreasing air volume) without changing the water content.

Effects of Compaction:
 • Increases stability of soil.
• Improves shear strength.
• Enhances bearing capacity.
• Reduces permeability.
• Decreases compressibility.

Tests for Compaction

a) Standard Proctor Test

Purpose: Determines the relationship between water content and dry density of soil.

Procedure:
Soil is compacted in 3 layers in a mould.
Rammer weight: 2.6 kg
Drop height: 300 mm

Outcome: Provides optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD).

b) Modified Proctor Test

Purpose: Used for heavy compaction requirements (e.g., highways, airfields).

Procedure:
Rammer weight: 4.89 kg
Drop height: 450 mm

Compactive effort: 4.5 times greater than the Standard Proctor Test.

Factors Affecting Compaction

I. Water Content: Dry density increases with water content until the optimum moisture
content (OMC) is reached. Beyond OMC, dry density decreases.
II. Soil Type: Different soils have different compaction characteristics.
III. Amount of Compaction Effort: More effort → higher dry density.
IV. Method of Compaction: Static, kneading, dynamic, vibration.
V. Contact Pressure: Higher pressure → better compaction.
VI. Admixtures: Lime, cement, or other stabilizers can improve compaction.

Optimum Water Content Ranges (Standard Proctor Test)

Soil Type Optimum Water Content (%)
Sand 6 – 10%
Silty Sand 8 – 12%
Silt 12 – 16%
 Clay 14 – 20%

Equipment Notes
• Pneumatic-tyred rollers are suitable for compacting soils.
• The line of optimums generally corresponds to about 5% air voids.
• The Zero Air Void Line and 100% saturation line are identical in theory.

Consolidation
Consolidation is the process of decreasing the water content of a saturated soil under sustained
static pressure, without replacement of water by air.

Key Points:
• Water is expelled gradually under static load.
• It is a longer process compared to compaction.
• Important in clayey soils where settlement occurs over time.

Compressibility Parameters
I. Compression Index (Cc) = Δe / log10(σ'2 / σ'1)

Where Δe = change in void ratio, and σ' = effective stress.

II. Coefficient of Compressibility (av) = -Δe / Δσ'

It Represents decrease in void ratio per unit increase in effective stress.

III. Recompression Index (Cr) = Δe / log(σ2 / σ1)

IV. Coefficient of Volume Change (mv) = Δe / (1 + e0)Δσ
V. Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv) = k / (mv × γw)
VI. Degree of Consolidation (Uz) = 1 - (H / H0)
VII. Relation between av and mv:

mv = av / (1 + e0)

Key Differences: Compaction vs Consolidation

Aspect Compaction Consolidation
Mechanism Reduction of air voids Expulsion of water from voids
Time Required Quick (minutes/hours) Slow (months/years)
Soil Type Mostly granular soils Mostly clayey soils
Load Type Dynamic/mechanical effort Static sustained load
Normally Consolidated Clay (NCC)
• Effective stress is the maximum it has ever experienced.
• OCR (Over Consolidation Ratio) = 1
• Compression curve is a straight virgin compression line.

Over-Consolidated Clay (OCC)

• Existing effective stress is less than the maximum past stress.
• OCR > 1
• Compression curve is curved (recompression curve).

Settlement
• Vertical downward movement due to volume decrease of soil.
• Settlement increases with decrease in permeability.
• Important for predicting magnitude and time of settlement.

Consolidation Test
I. Apparatus: Oedometer or consolidometer.
II. Typical loading sequence: 10, 20, 40, 80, 160, 320, 640 kN/m².
III. Readings are taken within 24 hours of each increment.
IV. Load is reduced to one-fourth of final load.
V. Plot: Effective stress vs. void ratio (semi-log graph).

Time Factor (Tv)

I. Tv = (Cv × t) / d²
II. For U < 60%: Tv = (π / 4) × U²
III. For U > 60%: Tv = 1.781 - 0.933 × log(100 - U)
d = drainage path (H for single drainage, H/2 for double drainage)

Additional Notes
• Compression index increases with increase in liquid limit.
• Recompression index is about one-fifth of compression index.
• Consolidation time increases with decrease in permeability
2.3 Shear Strength of Soil and Stability
of Slopes
Shear Strength of Soil
• Shear strength is the maximum inclined stress that the soil can resist before shear
failure.
• It is a contributing factor to the stability of cuts, foundations, slopes, and embankments.

Shear Failure
• Occurs when the shear stress induced by applied compressive load exceeds the shear
strength of the soil.

Mohr–Coulomb Theory
• States that soil fails when the shear stress on the failure plane reaches a value that is a
unique function of the normal stress on that plane.
• Failure is caused by a critical combination of normal and shear stress.
Mathematically expressed as:
τf = c' + σ · tan(φ)
Where:
• τf = Shear strength at failure
• c' = Cohesion
• σ = Normal stress
• φ = Angle of internal friction

Types of Shear Tests

1. Direct Shear Test

• Used to determine shear strength, angle of friction (φ), and cohesion (c) of soil.
• Also known as box shear test.
• Commonly conducted on cohesionless soils as CD test.
• Shear load is applied horizontally at the center of the specimen.
• Readings from proving ring and dial gauge are taken every 30 seconds.

2. Triaxial Test
• Measures mechanical properties of soil under three principal stresses (σ1, σ2, σ3).
• Variants include UU (Unconsolidated Undrained), CU (Consolidated Undrained), and CD
(Consolidated Drained) tests.
• In CD test, drainage is allowed throughout the test and drainage valve is open in both
stage.
• In CU test, drainage is allowed during consolidation but not during shear and valve is
closed in one stage.
• In UU test, no drainage is allowed at any stage and both stage valves are closed.

3. Unconfined Compression Test

• Similar to triaxial test but without confining pressure.
• Not suitable for coarse-grained soils.
• Unconfined compressive strength is the axial stress at failure.
• It is modified type of UU test.
Formula:
qu = σf = 2 · Cu
Where:
• qu = Unconfined compressive strength
• Cu = Undrained shear strength

4. Vane Shear Test

• Used in field and laboratory to determine undrained shear strength of cohesive soils.
• Not suitable for coarse-grained or very stiff soils.
• Sensitivity of soil can also be determined.
• A torque is applied at a rate of 6 degrees per minute.
Formulas:
τ = T / [π · D²(H/2 + D/6)]
Where:
• T = Applied torque
• D = Diameter of vane
• H = Height of vane

Stages of Shear Test

Shear tests are conducted in two main stages:

1. Consolidation Stage: Normal stress (confining stress) is applied to the specimen and allowed
to consolidate.

2. Shear Stage: Shear stress (deviator stress) is applied to the specimen to induce shear failure.
Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criterion
The Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion is expressed as:

σ₁ = σ₃ · tan²(45 + φ/2) + 2c · tan(45 + φ/2)

Where:

σ₁ = Major principal stress

σ₃ = Minor principal stress

c = Cohesion

φ = Angle of internal friction

Notes on Shear Strength

- The shear strength of plastic undrained clay depends primarily on cohesion.

- The shear strength of cohesionless soil is proportional to the tangent of the angle of internal
resistance.

- The angle of the failure plane with the major principal plane is given by (45 + φ/2).

- Stress path is plotted between deviatoric stress and average stress.

Stability of Slopes

Types of Slope Failures

1. Rotational Failure: Occurs in circular or curved failure surfaces, common in homogeneous
slopes.

2. Translational Failure: Involves movement along a planar surface, often in infinite slopes.

3. Compound Failure: Combination of both rotational and translational failure mechanisms.

4. Wedge Failure: Occurs when soil mass fails along intersecting planes, forming a wedge shape.

Types of Slopes
1. Finite Slopes: Slopes with limited extent, such as earthen dams, embankments, and man-
made slopes.

2. Infinite Slopes: Slopes with very large extent, typically natural slopes. Failure occurs parallel to
the slope surface.
Factor of Safety (Fs)
Definition: Ratio of shear strength to mobilized shear strength.

Fs = Shear Strength / Mobilized Shear Strength

For dry soil and submerged soil:

Fs = τ / τₘ

For seepage condition:

Fs = τ′ / τₘ

Stability Number (Sn) and Stability Factor

Stability Number formula:

Sn = c / (γ × H)

Where:

• c = cohesion

• γ = unit weight of soil

• H = height of slope

Stability Factor is the reciprocal of Stability Number:

Stability Factor = 1 / Sn

3. Methods of Slope Stability Analysis

• Swedish Circle Method

• C–φ Method (Method of Slices)

• Ordinary Method of Slices

• Circular Arc Method

4. Important Notes
• Mobilized shear strength is equal to applied shear strength.

• For base failure, the depth factor Df > 1.

• For toe failure, the depth factor Df = 1.

2.4 Soil Exploration and Site
Investigation
1. Objectives of Soil Exploration
Site investigations or subsurface explorations are conducted to:

• Select the type and depth of foundation

• Determine the bearing capacity of soil
• Establish the groundwater level (GWT)
• Predict future problems and plan accordingly

2. Depth of Exploration
The depth of exploration should be at least equal to the significant depth.

Significant depth is the depth up to which the stress increment due to superimposed loads
can produce significant settlement and shear stress.

It is generally taken as the depth at which the vertical stress is 20% of the load intensity.

Formula:

D = C × 5^0.7

Where:

• D = Depth of exploration
• C = Constant (3 for light steel structures, 6 for heavy steel and wide concrete buildings)

3. Types of Foundations
• Square Footing: Depth = 1.5 × width of footing
• Strip Footing: Depth = 1.5 × width of footing
• Mat Foundation: Depth = 3 × width of footing

4. Open Excavation Methods

• Pits and trenches with 1.2m × 1.2m working space at the bottom.
• Shallow pits up to 3m depth need no lateral side support.
• Deeper pits require lateral support in the form of sheeting and bracing systems.
• For depths more than 6m, boreholes are more economical than open pits.
Types of Soil Samples

1. Disturbed Samples
Disturbed samples are those in which the natural structure and properties of the soil are
modified.
They are used to determine index properties such as:
• Grain size distribution
• Plasticity characteristics
• Specific gravity

1.1 Non-representative Samples

These samples have altered original soil structure, grain size, and mineralogical constituents.
Example: Samples obtained from auger boring.

1.2 Representative Samples

These samples preserve natural water content and mineral constituents of the soil layer.
Suitable for:

• Atterberg limits
• Specific gravity
• Compaction tests

Example: Samples obtained from split-spoon sampler.

2. Undisturbed Samples
Undisturbed samples retain the natural structure and mineral properties of the soil as much as
possible.
Example: Samples obtained from piston samplers.

3. Design Features Affecting Sample Disturbance

3.1 Area Ratio (Ar)

Indicates the degree of disturbance during sampling.
Should not exceed:
• 30% for disturbed samples
• 20% for undisturbed samples

Formula:
Ar = ((D2² – D1²) / D1²) × 100
3.2 Inside Clearance (Ci)
Formula:
Ci = ((D3 – D1) / D1) × 100
Recommended range: 0.5% – 3%

3.3 Outside Clearance (Co)

Formula:
Co = ((D2 – D4) / D4) × 100

3.4 Recovery Ratio (Rr)

Formula:
Lr = Ls / H
Interpretation:

• Lr ≈ 1 → Good recovery
• Lr < 1 → Soil compressed
• Lr > 1 → Soil swelled

. Types of Samplers

1 Split-Spoon Sampler
- Thick-walled type sampler.

- Obtains disturbed but representative samples.

- Inside diameter: 38 mm

- Outside diameter: 50 mm

- Used in Standard Penetration Test (SPT).

- Driving shoe: 75 mm long

- Sample tube: 450 mm long, split longitudinally into two halves.

- Top collar: approximately 150 mm long

- Area Ratio (Ar): 10%

2 Shelby Tubes & Thin-Walled Samplers

- Used to collect undisturbed samples.
- Area Ratio (Ar) is kept low to minimize disturbance.

3 Open Drive Sampler

- Area Ratio (Ar): 30%

- Collects disturbed samples.

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

- Hammer weight: 63.5 kg

- Drop height: 750 mm

- Standard blow count: 30 blows required for 150 mm penetration

- Purpose: Used to measure shear strength of sands.

Overburden Correction
Corrected N-value is calculated using:

N₀ = N × (350 / (σ₀ + 70))

Where:

- N = Observed SPT value

- σ₀ = Overburden pressure in kN/m²

Dilatancy Correction
If N₀ > 15 in saturated fine sands and silts:

N_c = 15 + 0.5 × (N₀ - 15)

Earth Pressure Theories

1. Earth Pressure at Rest

• Occurs when the wall does not move laterally.
• Horizontal stress (σ_h) = K₀ × σ_v
• K₀ = 1 - sin(ϕ)

2. Active Earth Pressure

• Occurs when the wall moves away from the backfill.
• Failure wedge moves downward.
 • Pₐ = Kₐ × γ × H² / 2
• Kₐ = tan²(45° - ϕ/2) = (1 - sin ϕ)/(1 + sin ϕ)

3. Passive Earth Pressure

• Occurs when the wall moves inward to the backfill.
• Failure wedge moves upward.
• Pₚ = Kₚ × γ × H² / 2
• Kₚ = tan²(45° + ϕ/2) = (1 + sin ϕ)/(1 - sin ϕ)

4. Earth Pressure for Inclined Backfill and Cohesive Soil

For inclined backfill and cohesive soil:

Active Earth Pressure:

Pa = Ka × γ × H² / 2

Ka = (cosθ - √(cos²θ - cos²φ)) / (cosθ + √(cos²θ - cos²φ))

Passive Earth Pressure:

Pp = Kp × γ × H² / 2

Kp = (cosθ + √(cos²θ - cos²φ)) / (cosθ - √(cos²θ - cos²φ))

For cohesive backfill:

Pa = γH × Ka - 2c√Ka

Depth of tension crack: z = 2c / (γ√Ka)

Height of unsupported cut: H = 4c / (γ√Ka)

Pp = γH × Kp + 2c√Kp

5. Rankine vs Coulomb Earth Pressure Theories

Rankine Theory Coulomb Theory

Wall Face Vertical and smooth Inclined and rough

Backfill Horizontal Inclined

Friction Neglected Considered

 Equilibrium Plastic equilibrium Elastic equilibrium

Application Simpler cases More general cases

6. Stability Analysis of Retaining Walls

6.1 Against Sliding

Factor of Safety (FOS) = Resisting Force / Driving Force

FOS = (Pp + W × tanδ + B × La) / Pa

6.2 Against Overturning

FOS = Resisting Moment / Overturning Moment

FOS ≥ 1.5 for cohesionless soil

FOS ≥ 2.0 for cohesive soil

6.3 Against Bearing Failure

q_max = V / B × (1 + 6e / B)

q_min = V / B × (1 - 6e / B)

• Where e = eccentricity = x - B/2

• If q_min < 0, tension develops at the heel of the wall.
• For no tension , e < B/6

2.5 Fundamentals of Foundation

[Link] Foundations
Depth (D) < Width (W)

I. Spread Footing: Distributes imposed load from wall, column, slab, or roof over a large
area. Supports a column or wall.
II. Strip Footing: Also known as continuous footing or wall footing. Provided for load-
bearing walls.
 III. Combined Footing: Supports two or more columns. Used when:
• Columns are very close and individual footings overlap.
• A column is near a property line.
• Soil bearing capacity is low.
• Can be rectangular or trapezoidal in shape.
I. Strap or Cantilever Footing: Two isolated footings connected with a strap beam. The
strap does not contact the soil.
I. Raft or Mat Foundation: Large slab supporting multiple columns and walls under the
entire structure. Used when allowable soil pressure is low.
II. Trapezoidal combined footings are required when
• The space outside the exterior column is limited.
• The exterior column is heavier.

Deep Foundations
Depth (D) > Width (W)

• Required to transfer load to deeper strata.

Pile Foundations
• Long slender members made of wood, steel, concrete, or RCC embedded into the
ground.
• Types based on load transfer:
- End Bearing Piles
- Friction Piles
• Precast concrete piles and closed-end pipe piles: High displacement piles.
• Steel H-piles: Low displacement piles.
• Bored piles: Non-displacement piles.
• Drilled piles: Shaft size > 0.6m.
• A pile foundation is Used when:
- Loads are heavy.
- Soil near surface is weak.
• Load carrying capacity of pile foundation depends on:
- Skin friction
- Point resistance
• Negative skin friction develops when surrounding soil settles more than the pile.

Pier & Well Foundations

I. Pier Foundation: Cylindrical column of large diameter to support and transfer large
superimposed load to deeper strata.
II. Well Foundation: Provided below water level for bridges. Also known as caisson.
• Types of Caissons:
 - Open Caisson: Open at both top and bottom.
- Pneumatic Caisson: Closed at top and open at bottom.
- Floating Caisson: Open at top and closed at bottom.

2.6 Bearing Capacity and Foundation

Settlement
1. Bearing Capacity
• The maximum soil capacity to resist the load is called bearing capacity.
• The maximum pressure at which the soil below foundation neither fails in shear nor give
excessive settlement is also called bearing capacity

I. Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu): Maximum pressure at which soil fails in shear or
excessive settlement.
II. Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu_net): qu_net = qu - γDf
III. Net Safe Bearing Capacity (qns): qns = qu_net / FOS
IV. Gross Safe Bearing Capacity (qs): qs = qns + γDf

2. Net Allowable Bearing Pressure

• Used for design of foundations.
• qa = qu_net / FOS
Note: Overburden pressure exists before construction.

3. Terzaghi’s General Bearing Capacity Theory

• Soil is homogeneous and isotropic.
• Coulomb’s law of shear strength is valid.
• Foundation is shallow and long (strip footing).
• Shear strength of soil above base is neglected.
• Load is vertical and uniformly distributed.

4. Bearing Capacity Formulas

For different types of footings:
I. Strip Footing or Continuous footing

qu = 0.5 × γ × B × Nγ + γ × Df × Nq + 0.5 × c × Nc
 II. Square Footing:

qu = 0.4 × γ × B × Nγ + γ × Df × Nq + 1.2 × c × Nc
III. Circular Footing:

qu = 0.3 × γ × B × Nγ + γ × Df × Nq + 1.2 × c × Nc
IV. Rectangular Footing:

qu = 0.5 × γ × B × Nγ × (1 - 0.2 × B/L) + γ × Df × Nq + c × Nc

5. Types of Bearing Capacity Failures

General Shear Failure: Dense sand or stiff clay, well-defined rupture surface, bulging observed.
Local Shear Failure: Medium dense sand or clay, partial rupture surfaces.
Punching Shear Failure: Loose sand or soft clay, vertical movement of footing, no bulging.

6. Notes
Rise in water table decreases bearing capacity.
Bearing capacity does not depend on applied load.
Area of footing directly affects safe bearing capacity (SBC).

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering MCQ Notes