16.

Highly Polluting Industries (HPIs)

16.1. Highly Polluting Industries (HPIs) in India

• MoEF has classified 17 categories of Industries as Highly Polluting Industries (HPIs), which are to
be closely monitored. These industries are iron and steel, thermal power station, sugar, cement, dis-
tillery, dye and dyestuff, petrochemicals, refinery, pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, fertiliser, pes-
ticides, tannery, copper smelter, zinc smelter, aluminium and caustic soda.
• Pesticides, Pharmaceuticals, and Dye and Dye Stuff industries use a wide range of chemicals with far-
reaching effects on water quality. Some of the pollutants released by these industries are persistent in
nature.

Grossly Polluting Industries (GPIs)

• Grossly Polluting Industry (GPI) is defined as the industry that discharges wastewater of more than 100-
kilo litres a day and/or hazardous chemicals used by the industry as specified under Schedule I, Part II
of The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules of 1989 under Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986.
• GIPs include fertilisers, petrochemicals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, distillery, dairy, food and beverage,
pulp and paper, sugar, tannery, textile, bleaching and dyeing, thermal power plants, slaughterhouses,
cement, electroplating, metallurgical, automobile industry, etc.

Water Guzzlers
• Sectors such as thermal power plants (70-80%), engineering (5%), paper and pulp (2.2%), textiles
(2%), iron and steel (1.3%), sugar (0.5%), cement and fertilisers are water guzzlers. Most water is
used for filtration, cleaning, wet scrubbing, effluent discharge, etc.

Industrial Emissions and Effluents Monitoring

• Every industry and its effluent treatment plant (ETP) outlets are connected to a central monitoring
system that continuously reads and sends data to SPCB and CPCB. Since 2014, the monitoring has been
done through the Online Continuous Emissions/Effluents Monitoring Systems (OCEMS). All the
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HPIs (17 categories of industrial units) are required to have OCEMS.

• Five parameters are scrutinised for all industries: BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand), TDS (Total Dis-
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solved Solids), Ph value, COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) and TSS (Total Suspended Solids).
• The emissions monitored include particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and fluoride. If the pollution control boards receive any number that ex-
ceeds the permissible limit, the industry is sent a notice and action is taken.
Issues
 The data collected by OCEMS is largely inaccessible to the public; in the few cases that the data is
accessible, it remains opaque. The OCEMS network is regulated by CPCB, which also monitors the Con-
tinuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring System (CAAQMS). However, in the OCEMS, the monitoring
system is left to the same industries that are being monitored for their emissions! (The thieves have the
keys!)

16.2. Pollutants From HPIs

Thermal Power Plants (TPP)

• Processes involved: fossil fuels such as coil, oil, and natural gas are burnt to produce heat  Heat
is used to produce high-pressure steam from water → High-pressure steam is used to drive a steam
turbine  A generator attached to the steam turbine generates electricity.
• In India, most TPPs use coal as fuel (coal contains many toxic elements). Their energy efficiency is very
low (20-45%). Most TPPs do not employ pollution-reducing techniques such as flue gas desulphuri-
sation (FGD), electrostatic precipitation, etc.

Pollution
• Fly ash (electrostatic precipitator ash, dry fly ash, pond ash and mound ash) is a byproduct of coal
combustion. It is discharged into air and ash ponds (fly ash + water). The collapse of ash ponds con-
taminates nearby farms, homes, surface water bodies and groundwater with toxic heavy metals and
other elements.
• Toxic heavy metals in fly ash: Mercury, cadmium, arsenic, lithium, zinc, iron, copper, nickel, boron,
magnesium, lead, aluminium, etc., are widely detected in the air as well as water bodies around TPPs.
• Other toxic elements in fly ash: Fluoride, sulphur, etc.
• Gaseous Pollutants from TPP: Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides Of Nitrogen
(NOx), Particulate Matter (PM), Methane (CH4), Carbon Monoxide (CO — from incomplete com-
bustion), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), etc.
• Water Pollution: Heavy metal pollution due to acid mine drainage (AMD) from open-pit and under-
ground coal mines and TPP effluents (cooling tower blow down, ash handling wastewater, wet FGD
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system discharges, etc.).

[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements regarding mercury pollution:

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1. Gold mining activity is a source of mercury pollution in the world.

2. Coal-based thermal power plants cause mercury pollution.
3. There is no known safe level of exposure to mercury.
How many of the above statements are correct?
a) Only one
 b) Only two
c) All three
d) None
Explanation

Statement 1 is correct
• During the gold extraction process, mercury is used to bind with gold particles, forming an amalgam.
This technique, known as amalgamation. The amalgam is then heated to evaporate the mercury,
leaving behind the gold.
Statement 2 is correct
• When coal is burned to produce electricity in these power plants, mercury that naturally occurs in
coal is released as a gas into the atmosphere.
Statement 3 is correct
• Mercury is a toxic substance, and there is no known safe level of exposure to it. Even low levels of
mercury exposure can have adverse health effects, particularly on the nervous system.
Answer: c) All

Iron and Steel Industry

Processes involved 353

• Unwanted impurities are removed by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. Major impurities include
sulphur (which forms iron sulphide, which dramatically reduces the strength of steel), lead (improves
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the machinability of the steel when present in small quantities), oxygen (oxides make iron and steel
weak), etc.
• In a blast furnace, fuel (coke — has far fewer impurities than coal), iron ore, and flux (limestone —
removes sulphur and other impurities into slag) are continuously supplied. The byproducts obtained
are liquid slag, liquid iron (pig iron — an intermediate product of smelting iron ore; has oxides)
 and gases. Oxygen in the iron oxides is reduced by a series of chemical reactions that produce CO and
CO2.
 Pig iron to steel  Liquid (pig) iron  Cast iron (cooled liquid iron; brittle; carbon content greater
than 2%; wrought iron (weak) = liquid iron + slag)  Steel (carbon content is up to 2.1%; it does
corrode)  Stainless steel (steel + 10.5% chromium + Nickel, manganese, molybdenum, etc.; it
does not corrode).

Byproduct – Slag
• Slag  full of impurities such as calcium sulphide (CaS) and oxides of silica, alumina, magnesia,
calcium (CaO), etc., that entered with the iron ore or coke. Only a small percentage of slag goes into
landfills.
• Cement made with blast furnace slag has lower permeability and is more durable than Portland (reg-
ular) cement. It is used as an aggregate in concrete, cement clinker, asphalt concrete, asphalt and road
bases.
• Soil improvement: The dissolution of slag generates alkalinity that can be used to precipitate out
metals, sulfates, and excess nutrients (like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) in wastewater treat-
ment.
• Soil conditioner: Ferrous slags have been used to rebalance soil pH and as fertilisers (as sources of
calcium and magnesium).

Air Pollution
• The industry burns a lot of coal (thermal power; coke in the blast furnace), causing air pollution in the
form of PM2.5 and PM10, Carbon Dioxide, Sulphur Oxides (sulphur is eliminated as SO2 in the blast
furnace), Nitrogen Oxides, Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Sulphide, Non-Methane Volatile Organic
Compounds (NMVOC), etc.
• Coke ovens emit naphthalene, which is highly toxic and can cause cancer (carcinogenic).

Magnetite Pollution
• Magnetite pollution refers to the presence of a magnetic mineral called Magnetite (Fe3O4) in the envi-
ronment as a result of human activities such as mining, steel production and industrial processes.
Magnetic particles can interfere with the migratory patterns of birds and the operation of electronic
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•
equipment, such as compasses and navigation systems.
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[UPSC 2021] Magnetite particles, suspected to cause neurodegenerative problems, are

generated as environmental pollutants from which of the following?
1) Brakes of motor vehicles
2) Engines of motor vehicles
 3) Microwave stoves within homes
4) Power plants
5) Telephone lines

Select the correct answer using the code given below

a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 Only
b) 1, 2 and 4 Only
c) 3, 4 and 5 Only
d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

Explanation

• Magnetite is an oxide of iron. It is the most magnetic form of iron with ~72% metallic iron. It is a
natural magnet extensively sought out in the electrical industry for its excellent magnetic prop-
erties. Magnetite is used in brake pads as a solid lubricant.
• There are no conclusive sources mention the use of magnetite in microwave owens and telephone
lines. However, magnets are used in a microwave oven to guide electrons to heat food.

Answer: b) 1, 2 and 4 Only or d) all (tricky question)

Water pollution
• Heavy metal pollution occurs due to acid mine drainage (AMD) in slag dumps.
• Wastewater (used for filtering) from the coking process (heating coal in the absence of oxygen (CO
emissions) to drive off VOCs, leaving behind high-carbon coke) is highly toxic and contains several
carcinogenic organic compounds as well as cyanide, sulfides, ammonia, etc.
• Dissolution of slags (full of oxides) can produce highly alkaline groundwater. (oxides in slags react
with water to produce a higher concentration of hydroxide (OH-) in groundwater).

Cement Industry
• Processes involved: blasting limestone quarries  crushing limestone (75%) and clay (25%)  (cal-
cination) burning the prepared mix in a kiln (a large oven-like structure) at high temperature to form
calcium silicate clinker (a mix of limestone and minerals transformed by heat)  grinding clinker with
3-5% gypsum (regulates the setting time of cement)  Portland Cement.
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• Limestone (the most common form of calcium carbonate) is the most crucial binder in cement. It is
heated in kilns to ~1,400 °C using coal as fuel.
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• Carbon trapped in the limestone combines with oxygen and is released as CO2 (byproduct) — a ton of
cement yields at least half a ton of CO2. A portion of limestone can be substituted by blast furnace slag
and/or fly ash to reduce CO2 emissions.
• Cement manufacturing requires water for cooling heavy equipment and exhaust gases, in emission con-
trol systems such as wet scrubbers, and for preparing slurry in kilns.
Emissions and Effluents are the same as in TPP, as coal is the primary fuel source in kilns.

Copper Smelting Industry

Processes Involved
1. Mining of raw chalcopyrite ore (CuFeS2 — copper iron sulfide; most abundant copper ore mineral;
<1% Cu).
2. Improving chalcopyrite ore concentration (34.5% Cu, 30.5% Fe, and 35.0% S) by crushing, grinding, and
flotation purification (oils are used as certain metals have an affinity to oils) at the mine site.
3. Roasting of improved ore concentrate is performed in copper smelters (mostly near ports) to reduce
impurities, including sulfur, antimony, arsenic, lead, etc. It eliminates 20-50% sulfur as highly concen-
trated sulfur dioxide (SO2). It is converted to concentrated sulfuric acid and transported to fertilisers,
pharmaceuticals, paper bleaching, petroleum refineries and other industries.
4. Smelting of roasted ore concentrate produces matte (65% Cu), a molten mixture of copper sulfide
(Cu2S), iron sulfide (FeS), and slag consisting of iron oxide and heavy metals.
5. Converting the matte in a converter furnace yields high-grade blister copper (~99% Cu).
6. Blister copper is refined in an anode furnace and cast into anodes to remove oxygen (99.5% Cu).
7. Electrolytic refining: Copper from the anode plates is electrolytically deposited on the stainless steel
cathode plate, resulting in copper with a grade of 99.99%.
8. Slime generated in electrolytic refining contains precious metals such as gold, silver, selenium, tellu-
rium, etc. These metals are recovered in a slime treatment plant.

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Copper slag
• Copper slag is mainly used for abrasive surface blast-cleaning (used to shape the surface of the metal,
stone, concrete, etc.). It can be used in road construction and the production of cement, mortar, and
concrete as raw materials for clinker, coarse and fine aggregates.

Pollution
• Leaching of impurities from copper ore concentrate and slag: Radon (emitted from the natural ra-
dioactive decay of uranium and copper ores), iron, arsenic, antimony, mercury, lead, cadmium, se-
lenium, magnesium, aluminium, cobalt, tin, nickel, manganese, nitrates, fluorides, etc.
• As most copper ores are sulphur-based, the smelting process releases Sulphur Dioxide. When the con-
centration of sulphur dioxide is too high, the industries convert it into sulphuric acid, an irritant and
water contaminant.

Thoothukudi Sterlite Copper Plant Controversy

• Vedanta’s Thoothukudi Sterlite Copper Smelter in coastal TN and Hindalco’s copper smelter in
coastal Gujarat produced more than 80% of India’s copper.
• In 2018, massive protests erupted against the Thoothukudi plant over plans to increase the production
capacity from 400,000 to 800,000 tonnes per year. The plant was subsequently closed.
• The plant was built 14 km from the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, while the mandated distance
from an eco-sensitive zone for a hazardous industry like copper smelting should have been, as per CSIR-
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), more than 25 km. It was releasing
toxic fumes of Sulphur Dioxide into the atmosphere and toxic effluents containing heavy metals into
the nearby water bodies.
• The Thoothukudi plant contributed 36 per cent of the country’s demand for refined copper. It in-
cluded a sulphuric acid plant, a phosphoric acid plant and a 160 MW coal-based power plant to
power the copper smelter. The plant closure has affected many livelihoods.

[UPSC 2021] Why is there a concern about copper smelting plants?

1) They may release lethal quantities of carbon monoxide into environment.
2) The copper slag can cause the leaching of some heavy metals into environment.
3) They may release sulphur dioxide as a pollutant. 357

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

a) 1 and 2 Only
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b) 2 and 3 Only
c) 1 and 3 Only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation
 • Some quantity of CO is produced in almost all combustion processes. Lethal quantities of CO are
produced when there is incomplete combustion on an industrial scale.
• In the copper smelting process, the carbon monoxide produced reacts with the ore to produce carbon
dioxide. Hence, it does not release a lethal quantity of CO in the environment.

Answer: b) 2 and 3 Only

Zinc/Lead Smelting Industry

• Zinc protects the steel from corrosion (galvanisation). Lead is used in batteries. Zinc and lead often
occur together as sulphides.
1. Raw materials: Zinc sulfide (ZnS) and/or lead sulphide (PbS – galena) ore concentrate.
2. Beneficiation: Concentration of the zinc/lead in the recovered ore is done near the mine by crushing,
grinding, and flotation process using oils (lead has an affinity to oils).
3. Roasting: Benefaction ore is burned in a blast furnace and turned into calcine (impure zinc oxide at
high temperature), eliminating most of the sulphur as SO2. Crude molten lead (lead bullion) is recov-
ered similarly using limestone flux and coke.
4. Leaching: Calcine is dissolved in sulphuric acid.
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5. Purification: Pure zinc sulphate solution is produced by separating metals such as lead, gold, etc.
6. Electrowinning (specialised electrolysis process): Zinc contained in the zinc sulphate solution is de-
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posited onto aluminium cathodes. Similarly, lead is also extracted from lead bullion.
• Byproducts: Gold, silver and copper are collected as slimes.
• Granulated lead–zinc slag has suitable particle sizes for sand replacement in mortar and concrete.

Pollution
• Principal air pollutants: particulate matter (lead/zinc, arsenic, antimony, cadmium, copper, and
mercury and metallic sulfates) and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2).
• Sources of wastewater: spent electrolytic baths, slime recovery, spent acid from hydrometallurgy pro-
cesses, cooling water, air scrubbers, etc.
• Heavy metal leaching from discarded slag: Cadmium, copper, lead, iron, bismuth, antimony, arsenic,
copper, etc.

Aluminium Smelting Industry

1) The Bayer Process separates alumina (aluminium oxide) from bauxite ore near the mine. The insol-
uble parts of the bauxite are removed by exposing the ore to very hot caustic soda (sodium hydrox-
ide).
2) The Hall-Héroult Process produces pure aluminium by electrolysis of alumina in an aluminium smelter.
Due to the significant energy demand, the smelters must be set up close to a power station.

Pollution
• Most of the emissions are related to thermal power and electrolysis processes — NOx, SO2, ammonia
(NH3) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH — formed from incomplete combustion during elec-
trolysis).

Red Mud

• The highly alkaline and hazardous bauxite residue from the Bayer process is known as red mud. It is
composed mainly of iron oxides and various other various oxides and heavy metals.
• Historically, red was disposed of entirely in landfills. Of late, it is being used in road construction, and
as a source of iron, in producing iron-rich cement, low-cost concrete, etc. It is applied to soils to
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improve phosphorus cycling, amelioration of soil acidity, carbon sequestration, etc.

Petroleum Refining and Petrochemicals

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• The petroleum industry is subdivided into upstream, midstream, and downstream segments. The up-
stream deals with the exploration and mining of crude oil, the midstream includes storage and transport
of crude, while the downstream involves refining.

Petroleum Refining
1) Fractional distillation: separation of different fractions (hydrocarbon compounds) of crude oil based
on their boiling point differences.
2) Conversion processes: breaking down long chain molecules into more valuable smaller ones by heat-
ing.
3) Treating: separating the impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen and heavy metals.

Pollution

• Air pollutants include particulate matter (PM), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), sulfur dioxide (SO2), natural gas (methane), lead, VOCs
including cancer-causing benzene pollutants, etc.
• Refineries use deep injection into underground wells and coastal waters to dispose of wastewater and
oil residues generated inside the plants, and some of these wastes end up in aquifers and groundwater.

[UPSC 2021] With reference to furnace oil, consider the following statements:
1) It is a product of oil refineries.
2) Some industries use it to generate power.
3) Its use causes sulphur emissions into Environment.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

a) 1 and 2 Only
b) 2 and 3 Only
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c) 1 and 3 Only
d) 1, 2 and 3
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Furnace oil is a residue of crude oil.

Petrochemicals
• Petrochemical industry comprises the manufacture of synthetic fibres, polymers (PVC, polystyrene, per-
formance polymers, etc.) and intermediates (styrene), synthetic rubber (elastomers), synthetic detergent
 intermediates, performance plastics, etc., using hydrocarbon feedstock (naphtha, ethylene, propyl-
ene, butadiene, etc.) derived mainly from crude oil and natural gas processing.

Pollution

• Organic pollutants primarily consist of complex polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The
wastewater effluents include toxic phenols, cyanide, and formaldehyde.

Fertiliser Industry
• Air Pollutants: Particulate matter, ammonia (NH3), nitrogen oxides, sulphur and carbon dioxide. Pril-
ling towers, which manufacture urea prills, are a significant source of urea dust particulates.
• Water Pollution: Wastewater generated contains ammoniacal nitrogen, phosphates, heavy metals (va-
nadium and arsenic — used for carbon dioxide removal process in ammonia plant —and Chromium
— used as a corrosion inhibitor in cooling towers) and fluorides in varied amounts.

Distilleries
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• The distillery industry uses sugarcane molasses, cereals, fruits, sugar beet, and other agro products
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to produce alcohol through fermentation and distillation. Alcohol is an essential material in the chemi-
cal, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, beverage, food, and perfume industries.
• Distilleries are among the most water-polluting industries because ethanol fermentation results in the
discharge of high-strength liquid effluents with high concentrations of organic matter (high BOD)
and nitrogen compounds (eutrophication), low pH, high temperature, high turbidity and high salinity.
Paper and Pulp Industry

• Pulp is a fibrous material prepared by separating cellulose fibres from wood, bagasse, fibre crops, waste-
paper, etc. The pulp mills are energy intensive and use a lot of unpolluted water and chemicals (sulfite
salts, caustic soda, sodium sulfide, hydrogen peroxide, sulphonic acid, etc.) for pulping the wood
(to remove lignin) and bleaching the pulp to produce paper of various quality and finish.
• The released wastewater contains very complex organic (high BOD) and inorganic pollutants such as
sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium sulfide, chlorine dioxide, calcium oxide, hydrochloric acid,
etc.
• The primary gaseous pollutants are hydrogen sulfides, sodium sulfide, methyl mercaptan, sulfur, etc.

Caustic Soda
• Caustic soda (NaOH) is produced by electrolysis of brine (common salt dissolved in water; chloralkali
process) using mercury cell and membrane cell process. It is a widely used industrial chemical in pulp
and paper, detergents, packaging, agriculture, environmental protection, water treatment, textiles, etc.
• Chlor-alkali industries produce caustic soda, soda ash, chlorine and hydrogen, which are used as fuel
or converted to HCl. These products are used to manufacture paper, soaps and detergents, chemicals,
water treatment chemicals, textiles, PVC, glass, etc.
• Owing to the environmental risks associated with the mercury process and risks associated with han-
dling chlorine, its vapours and hydrogen, the industry is classified among the 17 polluting industry cat-
egories.
• Wastewater is generated from drying chlorine using sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Besides scrapped cell parts
(membranes, anodes and cathodes) leach heavy metals.
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Tannery
1. Beamhouse operations: hides from slaughterhouses  soaking (removes dirt from hides)  liming
(unhairing by chemical dissolution of the hair with an alkaline medium of sulphide and lime)  de-
liming (alkaline hides are neutralised with acid ammonium salts)  bating or puering (to degrade
proteins)  pickling (increases the acidity of the hide, enabling chromium tannins to enter the hide).
2. Chrome tanning: it is based on the cross-linkage of chromium ions with free carboxyl groups in the
collagen. It makes the hide resistant to bacteria and temperature.
• The discharge of solid waste and wastewater containing chromium is the leading environmental prob-
lem.
• Wastewater with high organic content (high BOD) emanates from the beam house (pre-tanning) op-
erations.
• Emissions into the air are primarily related to energy use and the use of organic solvents and dyes —
hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and ammonia (NH3).

Sugar Industry
• Processes involved: sugar cane (tropical grass crop)/sugar beet (temperate root tuber crop) harvesting
 juice extraction by crushing  filtration  crystallisation  drying of crystals  sugar.

Byproducts
• Press mud is waste produced during the filtration of cane juice. Applications: used as fertiliser, soil
amendment (any material added to a soil to improve its physical properties, such as water retention),
biosorbent (effectively adsorb metal ions and contaminants), animal feed, etc.
• Molasses is a dark viscous syrup resulting from refining sugar cane juice into sugar. Applications:
used to sweeten and flavour foods, in making brown sugar for baking, ethanol production, as ani-
mal feed, soil amendment, etc.
• Bagasse is a dry, pulpy, fibrous material that remains after crushing sugarcane. Applications: used as
fuel in sugar industries and raw material in paper, pulp, and packaging industries.

Air Pollution
• The burning of sugar cane leaves and residue and bagasse (used as a fuel in sugar industries) generates
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large quantities of fly ash, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, nitrates, carbon com-
pounds, and sulfates.
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• Sulphitation (introduction of SO2 into liquids) and carbonation (saturation of a liquid with CO2
gas) are used as a process of purification (lightning) of cane juice by employing sulphur dioxide, car-
bon dioxide, lime (calcium hydroxide) and calcium carbonate (aids precipitation of impurities)
producing SO2 and CO2.

GHGs
• The major part of the total GHG emission results from residue burning, the use of synthetic fertilisers,
and fossil fuel combustion. The sugarcane residue burning results in not only CO2, N2O (nitrous oxide)
and methane emissions but also other GHG precursors, including carbon monoxide (CO), non-me-
thane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), etc.

Water Usage
• To mature in the field, one kilo of sugarcane requires 1,500-2,000 litres of water. After the harvest, crush-
ing a single tonne of sugarcane requires another 1,500-2,000 litres of water, generating about 1,000
litres of wastewater.

Water Pollution
• The sugar industry ranks third for the amount of wastewater produced, after the pulp/paper and chem-
icals sectors. The wastewater contains a high amount of organic pollution load, particularly in sus-
pended solids, organic matter, press mud, bagasse, etc., raising the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD
— organic matter in water is decomposed by bacteria and other microbes consuming a lot of dissolved
oxygen).
• Coliform bacteria (indicator species for pollution load) indicates a high presence of pathogen and
total dissolved solids (TDS — inorganic salts such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, nitrates, etc.) in
sugar industry effluents.

------------- End of Chapter -------------

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